Volumes published (2006)

Transkript

Frontiers and identities : exploring the research area / edited by Lud’a Klusáková and
Steven G. Ellis
(Thematic work group)
320.1 (21.)
1. Nazione - Concetto I. Klusáková, Luda II. Ellis, Steven G.
CIP a cura del Sistema bibliotecario dell’Università di Pisa
This volume is published, thanks to the support of the Directorate General for Research of the European Commission,
by the Sixth Framework Network of Excellence CLIOHRES.net under the contract CIT3-CT-2005-006164.
The volume is solely the responsibility of the Network and the authors; the European Community cannot be held
responsible for its contents or for any use which may be made of it.
Volumes published (2006)
I. Thematic Work Groups
I. Public Power in Europe: Studies in Historical Transformations
II. Power and Culture: Hegemony, Interaction and Dissent
III. Religion, Ritual and Mythology. Aspects of Identity Formation in Europe
IV. Professions and Social Identity. New European Historical Research on Work, Gender and Society
V. Frontiers and Identities: Exploring the Research Area
VI. Europe and the World in European Historiography
II. Transversal Theme
I. Citizenship in Historical Perspective
III. Doctoral Dissertations
I. F. Peyrou, La Comunidad de Ciudadanos. El Discurso Democrático-Republicano en España, 1840-1868
Cover: František Kupka (1871-1957), The Eddy, oil on canvas, Museum of Grenoble. © 1990. Photo, Scala Archives,
Florence.
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Manager
Claudia Napolitano
Editing
Francesca Petrucci
Informatic assistance
Michele Gasparello and Fabrizio Sodini
Within and Beyond: the Reciprocal
Relations and Intersections of Identities*
and of Symbolic and Territorial Borders
Luďa Klusáková
Karel Kubiš
Blanka Říchová
Veronika Sušová
Martina Krocová
Ondřej Daniel
Charles University, Prague
Článek hledá v oblasti společenských věd vzájemné průsečíky mezi tématy hranic a identit.
Kolektiv autorů, vycházející z prostředí Semináře obecných a komparativních dějin Filozofické
fakulty Univerzity Karlovy, nastiňuje metodologii výzkumu alterity (my a oni, Druhý).
Problematika hranic je představena jak v rovině teritoriální, tak i symbolické. Studium
kolektivních identit se v pojetí autorů opírá o chápání jejich vzniku jako procesuálního
a mnohovrstevnatého aktu. Důraz při zkoumání těchto fenoménů je položen na využití
poznatků z celé škály současných společenských věd a jejich vzájemné propojení.
Dále se článek zamýšlí nad různými možnými přístupy k problematice a představuje
výzkumné projekty, které tématizují problematiku v celé své šíři: historická zkušenost
přechodu hranic (Martina Krocová), městské lokální identity (Luďa Klusáková a Jaroslav
Ira), státní identita v mnohonárodnostních říších (Veronika Sušová), identita nestátních
národů (Blanka Říchová) a identita v diaspoře (Ondřej Daniel). Autoři přiznávají
inspiraci v řadě interdisciplinárních studií, jejich metodologický rámec zahrnuje mimo
historie i práce vycházející z blízkých oborů společenských věd – sociologie, filozofie,
antropologie, psychologie a politické vědy. Obdobně rozšiřují svůj záběr o další koncepty
vycházející z těchto oborů – pojem kolektivní paměti a procesy vytváření státu a národa.
V krátkém nástinu článek reflektuje dosavadní práce vzniklé na poli mezinárodní vědecké
obce, které se dotýkají témat hranic a identit.
Skutečným těžištěm této práce je však představení dosavadního úsilí českých společenských
vědců tématizovat tuto problematiku. Anotované projekty a publikace pochází z období
po vzniku samostatné České republiky (1993) do současnosti (2005). Text je členěn podle
jednotlivých disciplín společenských věd. Na relativně malé ploše jsou takto představeny
nejnosnější projekty a již publikované badatelské výsledky z oborů historiografie,
antropologie a etnologie, sociologie, politických a ostatních věd (psychologie, filozofie,
religionistika, geografie, lingvistika a d.).
Mapping the Field of Research
102
Luda Klusáková, Karel Kubiš, Blanka Říchová, Veronika Sušová, Martina Krocová, Ondřej Daniel
Introduction
From the point of view of comparative history the combination of the two themes
– frontiers and identities – is very promising, offering a great variety of possible views
and approaches. These two issues cannot be treated separately, they are ‘communicating
vessels’. Borders, limits, dividing lines, frontiers, boundaries are present everywhere, both
separating and connecting objects, territories, individuals and groups. They construct and
confirm identifications. Obviously, identities are also omnipresent, since every individual
belongs to many different social groups, figurations and configurations with which he
or she identifies. In many situations the individual thinks of himself or herself as one of
“us”, a category distinct from everything around it that is then defined as “the others”. By
definition identities create borders between wholes, between collective entities that define themselves as “us” in contrast to “them – others”. Thus borders and identities belong
together. Self-identification is facilitated and supported by construction of “images” and
stereotypes of “others”, be it friends or enemies. Others are different, and as a rule they
are imaged as the bearers of worse traits (characteristics), as it is so difficult for any “us”
to accept any differences or othernesses. We see the concept of alterity and research into
“images” as an integral part of research on borders and identities. Tackling them in explicit combination makes our project unique, but of course without further definition this
theme is too broad and allows for too many approaches to be practical without further
qualification. On the basis of our earlier research projects and individual research plans
we have therefore narrowed down the field to mutual intersection and interdependence
of borders and identities. On the following pages we shall define the premises, themes and
approaches characteristic to the authors of this chapter, which give coherence to our contribution to the mapping of the field of research, and then offer an overview of the state of
research on frontiers and identities in the Czech republic in the last fifteen years.
Where
and how borders and identities intersect?
The very essential for our position is the emphasis on processual understanding of both
phenomena: borders or frontiers and identities. We are interested in territorial frontiers
as well as in symbolic borders or cultural boundaries, and in their role in the process
of building different collective identities, be they national, state, regional, confessional,
linguistic, or defined by specific cultural habits, etc. We focus on interactions in different cases of intersection and on the results in the content of identities. The team of the
Seminar of General and Comparative History first focused on the theme of identities
in the project Obraz druhého: komparativní studium projevů historického vědomí (19961998) [The Image of the Other: A comparative study of expressions of historical consciousness]. In the following period it worked on a sequential research project entitled
“My” a “oni” – Identity, tradice a přenos kulturních hodnot v novověké evropské společnosti
(1999-2004) [“We” and “the Others” – Identity, Tradition and the Transmission of
Cultural Values in Early Modern European Society]. The project was one of six component programmes (“The Image of Reality outside and inside Czech Society in its Collective
The Reciprocal Relations and Intersections of Identities and of Symbolic and Territorial Borders
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Consciousness”) conducted as part of the wider research programme “The Development of
Society in the Czech Lands in the Context of European and World History”1, directed by
Charles University in Prague. The project “We” and “the Others” was conceived as an
interdisciplinary venture by a team of comparative historians, each of whom worked
on their own sub-theme in which they could develop their individual approach to the
study of the formation of group identities.
Co-operation with ethnologists and political scientists was reflected in the resulting
publications and the research projects of the doctoral students successively attached
to the project’s academic team. The main output has been a series of four (to be five)
collections published successively in the Acta Universitatis Carolinae. Since April 2005
we have been progressing further on the same thematic line in a new five-year project
entitled Modern Europe – Unity and Diversity: European culture and identity in the
18th-20th Century. The aim is to analyse the formation of cultural bonds in Europe
with an eye to the position and specific features of different regions including Central
Europe. We want to identify the circumstances and consequences of the formation of
different types of identity in the given geographical, political and cultural historical
frame and their transformations in the period from the 18th to 20th centuries, to draw
attention to promising attempts (even unsuccessful attempts) to create a single framework of European culture, and to analyse the role of the peripheries and centres of the
cultural political and economic development of Europe. The project assumes comparative analysis, with the emphasis on exploration of phenomena that have contributed or
still contribute to the creation of bonds of identity within the framework of European
culturally defined borders, to the interpretation of identity in local, regional and national level of self-identification. We can further say that the members of Prague team
explore different approaches to the issue, emphasize different aspects of intersection of
physical frontiers with especially symbolic borders and collective identities.
Although we are interested in various symbolic borders, and are persuaded that they
are extremely important, we do not overlook the role and the strong influence that the
natural or physical, or state frontier exerts on the life of society. Taking the example
of the Czech-Saxon border, or in effect the Austrian-Saxon border in the earlier 19th
century, we examine perceptions of the specific features of a country and the role of the
state border2. The focus will be on the nature of the perceived social (cultural, confessional, political, economic) differences in this region, how important they were and the
categories in which Saxon and Bohemian similarity and otherness were understood.
We do not intend to focus on “objective” description of the differences, but rather on
their perception in the boundary perspective, in the understanding of the state border
as a border between two different worlds. The main sources will be travel books, travel
diaries, memoirs and correspondence from the both sides. These allow us to examine
personal experience with crossing the border and confrontation with another environment. It also invites a comparative perspective, taking into account the role of several
other territorial frontiers, for example the Tyrolian-Italian, or the German-Dutch frontier. These three frontiers between states also divide historical lands, and two of them
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are physical barriers in the form of high mountains as well. A confessional and language
border can also be found in these cases.
The question of the relationship between frontiers and modern nation-state building in
the European context is one that we see as central. It appears that frontiers are mental
as well as purely institutional phenomena3. They both are an important symbol of the
existence of the modern nation-state. The process of building the nation-state represents a very complex field of study. One important aspect is to trace the attempts of
newly formed nation-states to erase and re-define its internal frontiers. These ‘internal frontiers’were based on tradition, lost statehood, the prestige of local old elites and
ethnic and cultural heterogeneity (in relation to the newly born homogenous nationstate). The new nation-states were attempting (with varying results) to abolish many
kinds of former border of this kind and construct a comprehensive (institutional and
mental) unity, based on the existence of one external frontier, and the internal ‘frontierless’ space as well as political integration of its inhabitants/citizens. These attempts – of
course – represented a source of internal conflict within states, and the pattern itself
took very different forms (one in France and Spain, another in Germany, and another
in Habsburg Monarchy and Russia). Hence from this perspective nation-state building
can be seen as a process of ‘erasing’ internal frontiers and building a new (single) statebased frontier.
The urban-rural dichotomy has been central to European civilization. Urban and rural
society are both categories that involve a strong element of labelling. Both identities
are social, cultural and territorial at the same time. The phenomenon of the town is
considered to be one of the identificational factors in European civilisation in general
and modern civilisation in particular4. European urban society is also associated with
an innovative spirit and openness to new technologies. The process of urbanisation,
regarded as the most characteristic mark of the modernisation of European societies,
accelerated and intensified from the early modern era until in the 20th century it took
on a very pronounced and at the same time paradoxical form. Towns grew, and often
several original settlements merged together, but at the same time their inhabitants
fled, seeking space and peace in the suburbs or beyond. Conversely, the urban style of
life, or urban civilisation, penetrated not just small towns but even further. The borders
of urban culture or civilisation are advancing to encompass the countryside and the
previously very obvious border between the town and country is becoming blurred in
many regions. The identity of the town seems to be founded, as it has been for centuries,
on its exclusivity and difference from the village and countryside and on features that
have always been peculiar to this one kind of settlement. Urban societies are based on
the principle of the positive evaluation of growth, success, change, and innovation as
a clearly beneficial factor. On the other hand, while features are typical for dynamic
regions showing economic growth, on the map of Europe we shall find plenty of regions that have been by-passed by classical industrial urbanisation, where towns have
not grown or where very small towns fulfil the functions of cultural and administrative centres. Questions that we might pose in this context include the following: How
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does the identity of a town develop in different environments and historical situations?
Does it arise spontaneously, unintentionally, or is it a conscious construct? Is the identity of a town (or of its part) defined once and for all, or can it be redefined in certain
situations? If it is a construct, who helps to construct it? From this angle the definition
of the identity of a town appears to be part of the politics of memory. Is the identity of
a town linked to the identity of its inhabitants? How has the identity of members of
a town community arisen and developed in the early modern period, the modern age
and the recent past? With whom and with what do migrants to towns identify? What
role is played in this process by history, local, national and international? What borders
does the immigrant cross, construct or knock down? We may say that the urban community is formed by the linkage (as in a chain) of figurations of different communities,
which may (but need not) be bound to territory, which are identity-generating and
define each other using inter alia symbolic borders (mental, social, cultural). These may
then overlap and intersect.
The specific theme that we wish to explore is the problem of rural (peripheral) regions,
bypassed by industrialisation or in some cases hit by de-industrialisation or the loss of
administrative functions as a result of the current transformations and processes accompanying European integration. Retrospective comparative analysis of the construction of urban and regional identity is revealing the importance of the historical background to current at-risk regions. Viewed from inside, the perception of peripherality
and identification with backwardness come to the fore. Viewed from outside, the image
of de-urbanisation involves the perception of the backward as the “other”.
The focus on urban space and urban society changes the scale of analysis and draws in
the regional (in various definition) and national perspective as well as local urban history. In this particular context we started a project that centres on the analysis of the
relationship between local and national identity in the historiography of the Czech
towns (or towns belonging to the Bohemian Lands in the past) in the last third of the
19th century5. The project is based mainly on the analysis and comparison of historiographical texts. Exploration of both the formal dimension and content of these texts
shows that many different methods were used to set the history of towns into the more
general frame of Czech or other history. The problem is also analysed at the level of the
theoretical foundations of town historiography, the concept of “appreciation” and the
specific forms of historiographical construction of the unique character and positive
values of a town and its past. It appears to be a very complex issue with various cultural, political and social connotations, which invites a comparative perspective in the
broader Central European context. It may also be treated as a multidisciplinary project
of historians, ethnologists, sociologists and political scientists.
Czech political scientists have been interested in the theme of borders and identities
because of its direct relation to the theme of national identity and state sovereignty in
the period of the transformation of the political systems of the countries of Central
and Eastern Europe, and especially questions relating to the problematic and dramatic
developments in the countries of the former Yugoslavia and Soviet Union.
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As a result of the comparatively peaceful break-up of federative Czechoslovakia into
two sovereign states, the relationship between Czech and Slovak politics and politicians in the course of the years 1990-1992 has become a focus of Czech political scientific interest. In this respect the Czech and Slovak experience serves as an historical and
political analogue of the non-violent solution of conflicts between nationally (ethnically) differently defined societies in some countries of Western Europe. Among the
cases often cited as examples of long-term non-violent co-existence between different
identities we find the Dutch political scene (the identity aspect takes a different form,
on the religious level), Belgium, where in the early 1990s the situation resulted in federalisation of the system (with the definition of the regional and community borders
separating two and sometimes three culturally – and as it later turned out also politically – different communities) or the Swiss experience. Political science looks at these
identity communities with their ties to geographically and mentally (i.e. historically,
culturally and symbolically) defined territory and analyses their relationships to specific forms of democratic constitution; it is an issue that since the 1990s has repeatedly
caught the attention of both Czech and foreign academics. Here there is still plenty of
space for the deeper analysis of the political mechanisms of democracy in multicultural
society and the subject will continue to attract the notice of specialists from various
branches of the social sciences.
A second theme, and one that reflects a different level of the relationship between differently defined and proclaimed identities, is the development of the so-called “nations
without nation states” and their current situation. The theme has inspired important
studies (to which Czech political science has responded) on decentralisation and the
way nationally (ethnically) defined communities are presently seeking – by different
routes and in different forms – to pursue their interests and make themselves visible at
national and international levels (in relation to the EU). Analyses of this type focus on
the study of nationally (ethnically) defined communities and their political expressions
in the present; themes important within these studies include identity and its expression or propagation within a given community6, the question of national symbols and
their presentation7, the impact of perceptions of history on current politics and changes
in the presentation of the past (most often appearing in the context of discussions on
“coming to terms with the past” (V. Dvořáková).
All these issues can be treated in various levels as separate studies, but a larger and
comparative perspective is rewarding. It is desirable to launch a research project that
involves elements from all these thematic areas. We suggest focus on three mutually
complementary sets of problems.
First, the theme of nations without states – there are many such cases across Europe. There
is an opportunity here to compare the development of nationally (ethnically) defined
communities in the framework of the concept of the formation of the so-called “small
nations” (as the prominent Czech historian Miroslav Hroch has been presenting them in
his work since the 1970s), both in societies generally regarded as advanced, stabilised democracies (Great Britain) and in countries like the Czech Republic (and central Europe
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in general) where political evolution and national identity are interacting in a different
stage of development. We focus in this project mainly on the Welsh and the Scots – on
the historical context of the development of these communities in the 19th and 20th centuries (with necessary excursions further back in time) and the political programmes of
these specific communities in the present8. The question is how different phases of identification, and their inter-connections, are reflected in processes for the political solution of
conflict in a particular political, geographical and mental territory.
The second thematic set of problems that will form a component of studies of the relationship between borders and identities consist of questions associated with presentday decentralisation and the centre-periphery relationship, i.e. how identity is expressed
in the framework of the newly defined intra-systemic (internal state) borders, and how
those borders are defined (whether they are historically given or newly established – the
case of the Italian regions, the Flemish and Walloon movements, the Breton movement
or the themes of Alsace and Lorraine and Provence, Spanish decentralisation and so
forth) and how they are justified (who defines them and with what goal, against whom
and in whose interest).
The theme of national symbols is another integral part of the study of contemporary
national identities. On the one hand these symbols serve as an element of communication that has an integrating function, but at the same time they work as a relational
framework, i.e. they can be used as means to determine borders between specifically
defined communities (the national symbol versus the religious or the political symbol,
in the sense of party political, and so on).
Since this is a very large set of themes, which both Czech and other European academics have been tackling for many years, the research project here will concentrate on a few
specific territories: Great Britain (Wales and Scotland) and selected French “parallels”,
and Belgium (in some aspects the Netherlands as well).
The debate about public history, about the ownership of the past and about its use is
one important aspect of research of identities. The Balkans and especially countries
of the former Yugoslavia have been inspiring academic debate on this issue since the
violent desintegration of the Federation in the beginning of the 1990s. We propose to
use the interdisciplinary tools of social sciences with the aim of discovering how postYugoslav exile communities use the past9. The usage of the past (in the dimensions of
both, history and memory) is considered in this context as the most important marker
distinguishing the identity of these collectivities. The methodological references of the
project that have to be mentioned are ethno-history10, microhistory11, interpretative
anthropology12, studies of the social memory13 and its relation to space14.
At the very end of Tito’s Yugoslavia, the majority of its population used variants of one
common language (Serbo-Croatian) and had already lost a strong relationship to religion. Nevertheless, family memories, mostly connected to the World War II, remained
in the form of identity markers. The works of nationalist historians of all communities
contributed in the 1980s to the “fragmentation of the tradition” of trans-ethnic YugoMapping the Field of Research
108
slav identity into partial ethnic identities (namely Serbian, Croatian and Bosniak). The
key concept is in this context again the relationship to the World War II.
Diaspora communities outside Yugoslavia were often openly hostile towards Yugoslav
unity while it was still in existence. After 1945 many nationalist organisations were
founded in exile, partly reinforced by the wave of the “guest-workers” in the 1960s and
1970s. Later, with the end of Yugoslavia and during the tragic events afterwards, many
newcomers to the western countries have tried to forget the chauvinism of their homeland, and some became “Yugonostalgic”. Others, on the contrary, have left ex-Yugoslavia to escape responsibility for their activities during the wars.
Once in diaspora, approaches to the past may come to differ as between the different ethnic groups but also according to the specific host-countries involved15. Here the
project involves analysis of commemorative activities and published memories with
their temporal and space dimensions. The other crucial questions that arise include the
relationship to the politics of both, home- and host-countries and the dynamics of lobbying to protect the interests of the homeland.
Concerning identities, the project aims to analyse the identity markers that these exiled
communities consider typical for their national communities. The research relates to
two kinds of source – historiographical narratives once again on one hand, and the
popular music on the other. The sources for this research are mainly the community
Internet sites based in the two example host-countries (France and Austria) but also
worldwide, as classical state frontiers no longer exist in the cyber-world.
A great part of the research is, as has been mentioned, linked to the World War II. Regarding this topic, finally, the project aims to analyse both the academic and the popular discourse linked with this historical drama. If sometimes the parallels are drawn
between the World War II and the Wars of Yugoslav Succession, the project endeavours
to answer the question: Why was the past so present?
The Communicating Vessels of Borders and Identities: On methodology and the frame of reference
None of these fields (border studies, research into collective identities or alterities) is
new, especially in international perspective. The chapters in this volume devoted to
concepts and methods accentuate the close methodological links between history on
one side and sociology and philosophy on the other16. Equally important were psychology, anthropology, and political science. In future volumes we would like to return to
methodological issues regularly and discuss for example the contribution of Frederik
Barth and Lutz Niethammer to border studies, of Simon Schama and Pierre Nora to
the concept of places of memory and research of the massive “staging of the past”. In
the limited space of this chapter we can focus only on the most prominent works, those
most important for our research.
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We see the theme of “borders” as breaking down into two basic areas, i.e we work
with the concept of either the territorial border or the symbolic (non-territorial or
metaphorical) border. The development of the meaning of the territorial border and
development of notions of borders is reflected in language. The stability of territorial
borders and their relative clarity has in the Czech case created a historical context
in which a terminology has developed that is clearly informed by the notion of a
boundary between territorial wholes, or any kind of entities. In this regard, and in
view of our specialisation in the modern period, we have continued to find methodological inspiration in Sahlins’ older work tracing the relationship between territorial
borders and the building of the modern state and formation of a modern nation in
a case study of the Catalan area of Cerdanaya in the Pyrenees (i.e. in the ethnically
and linguistically Catalan border area between two emerging modern states that as
part of their state-building were clearly defining territorial borders and territorial
sovereignty, and subsequently as part of the process of nation-building using various
strategies contributing to the formation of national identity). Sahlins presents the
rise of the modern state and the rise of the modern nation as a two-way processes
from at least the end of the 17th century. He argues that it was not just the state that
introduced new values into local societies, but that the local societies themselves were
an important motivating force in the formation and consolidation of nationality and
the territorial state17.
In discussions on the problem of construction of identities we have been inspired by
Anthony D. Smith’s essential study in which he articulates the theory of self-identification and building of collective identity, as well as by contributions of Shmuel Noah
Eisenstadt and Bernhard Giesen, which are of fundamental importance for the issue
of the social construction of borders as ways of strengthening of collective identity,
i.e. the construction of borders, the demarcation of spheres, the symbolic codes of distinction18. Last but not least we have drawn on Benedict Anderson’s Imagined Communities, for the analysis of the forging of the collective identities of much larger and
comprehensive groups19.
In the development of our view of symbolic borders, which are constructed as part of
efforts to strengthen collective identities and through related academic treatments of
alterity, we have naturally drawn on Edward Said’s now classic but still very controversial book Orientalism and the discussion that it has provoked. Maria Todorova reacted
to Said in Imagining the Balkans with a theory of Balkanism, and Larry Wolff in Inventing Eastern Europe responded by developing an analysis of intellectual discourse about
the “backward” as the “other” in a Europe in process of modernisation.
It must be stressed, however, that the older debates summarised by Hélène Ahrweiler
together with Bronislaw Geremek and Michel Mollat du Jourdin continue to be of
great value. The summaries come from one of the main sections of the International
Congress of Historians in Stuttgart in 1985 devoted to the theme of alterity. Here
Hélène Ahrweiler stressed already that this was by no means a new academic problem,
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and that the dichotomy of “I” and “They”, or “Us” and “Them” was the fundamental
reciprocal relationship in the creation of ties of identity. Ahrweiler considered the chaotic state of research at the time to be the consequence of the sheer omnipresence of
the issue and the lack of system resulted into fragmentation of original scholarship. She
therefore identified what she considered the three main areas in the whole field that
historians should be concentrating on in future: ethnic minorities, social marginality
and cultural alterity. She then proposed that as analytic tools they should use spaces
or levels (les espaces) of otherness. Ahrweiler then elaborated the theme of the form of
attitudes to otherness and finally outlined a basic typology of otherness (the “Us” and
“Them” relationship) in history. In her opening paper she had, in effect, summarised
and formulated the key methodological starting points for the definition and exploration of otherness. Ahrweiler also drew attention to the close connection between the
themes of “the image of the other” and the subject matter of the history of mentalities,
stressing that the basic premise in her view was the mutual interdependence of otherness and identity.
Theoretical and methodological approaches to research on social marginality have been
strongly influenced by the Polish historian Bronislaw Geremek, who contributed to
the same conference and is known for his research into outlawed social groups living
outside or on the margins of a society20. He has concentrated on older and still valid
theoretical definitions of social marginality in the social sciences (Robert E. Park, Everett V. Stonequist, Alan Ch. Kerckhoff, Robert Merton) and in history or historical
anthropology (H. Pirenne, David Riesman, Michel Foucault, Jacques Le Goff, Julio
Caro Baroja, Keith Thomas, Georges Duby, Erich Köhler, Victor W. Turner, František
Graus, Eric Hobsbawm, Michel Mollat du Jourdin and others), the refinement of these
definitions and research approaches to marginalisation. We acknowledge the value of
his ideas in the analysis of models of modernisation and in the morphology of marginality, since in history the image of “people on the margins” represents a specific version of the image of “the others”, an image that not only strengthens consciousness of
otherness (generally and specifically), but also constitutes an image of the reverse side
of society, a peculiar opposite pole to “our” own society and culture (i.e. the image of
a kind of “anti-society” and “anti-culture”). The society on the margin possesses not
only its own identity, but also its own territory, time and tempo of life. The problem
of maintaining the exclusion of those who have no stake in established society, or find
themselves outside the social or legal norm, beyond the border of established society,
represents one important “crossroads” of borders and identities.
In the terms of our project the key issue is that of collective identities, i.e. relationships, ties, contradictions and conflicts between “us” and “them” rather than the “I”
and “them” dichotomy. What is crucial is the search for and definition of “us” in confrontation with various “others”, i.e. the construction of identities as process. Identification with a certain collective entity does not exclude identification with a whole series
of other communities. The process of exclusion or inclusion may be voluntary or en-
111
forced. Furthermore the identity acquired becomes norm generating. Historiographically speaking, therefore, we use Ahrweiler’s analysis of the state of research as a basis,
since even today it remains remarkable for its clear, precise and lucid formulation21.
Essentially we take the discussions at the congress in Stuttgart as a referential base line
to which we relate the results of research in the field in the following 15-20 years, i.e. the
years 1990-2005, or 1985-2005.
At Stuttgart, for example, identities and otherness were discussed primarily in the context
of the history of mentalities and while the theme of borders was implicit in the debate it
remained only latent, while in our project we see identities as generating borders, just as
every border, whether territorial or symbolic, generates identities. In Stuttgart H. Ahrweiler deliberately ignored the question of the image of women, although it is entirely
fundamental and essential for borders and identities and in subsequent years became the
subject of the separate research current of gender studies. Another subject that Ahrweiler
left to one side were problems of religious heresy, religious/intellectual dissent and deviation in behaviour, while our research plan has included these overlooked themes.
Pressing on from these discussions, we believe that it is necessary to shift the lens and
focus not just on the phenomenon of borders and the phenomenon of identity, but
above all on the links between the two phenomena, their interconnection and mutual interaction. Apart from territorial borders we shift symbolic borders and their real
influence on the life of individuals and communities more to the centre of attention.
As specific themes we have chosen the level/context of public discourse in the societies of European nations without nation states, the level of historically defined regions
and micro-regions, urban environments, exile societies living in diasporas, which are
confronted by variously defined others, cutting across actual borders but sometimes
creating borders themselves.
The
present state of research
Interest in the theme of borders and identities can be charted in history, and neighbouring fields of humanities or social sciences: ethnology or anthropology, political
science, sociology, in published books and articles and also in the profile of research
projects carried out after the establishment of an independent Czech Republic, i.e. in
the period 1993-200522. In this period as many as 156 projects in the social sciences to
varying extents dealt with the theme of borders, and sometimes identities (although
the latter were clearly a minority). Most of these projects were three-year, but some of
them were shorter and some were longitudinal or continuation projects. For the sake of
completeness we should add that in the early 1990s projects of this kind were very rare,
contrasting with the rapid growth in their numbers at the beginning of the following
decade. The trend does not, however, reflect so much a sudden deepening interest in
the research themes concerned as a successful change in the organisation of academic
research and the extension of the practice of giving (individual) research grants.
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Historiography
In the last fifteen years Czech historiography, after a period of critical self-examination,
has in part turned to Neo-positivism, and in part been restoring older ties with the
French “Annales” school, as well as links with the new economic and social history in
Europe and beyond. Let us follow this trend first through the analysis of the research
projects, and second through the perspective of published books and articles.
In the field of history in the period 1993-2005 a total of 111 projects in one way or another concerned with borders or identities were directly classified within the field, 67 of
them defined as purely historical projects and another 44 as projects combining history
with another discipline (most often with archaeology, anthropology and ethnology,
politics and political sciences, philosophy and religion but also with sociology and demography, legal sciences, art, architecture and cultural heritage or with economics).
Nevertheless, truly historical projects directly focused on research into identities were
very rare. Those that may be so defined were D. Třeštík’s attempt to reconstruct Czech
mythology, M. Řezník’s exploration of provincial land identities in the early modern
period using the examples of Prussia, Pomerania and Mecklenburg, R. Vlček’s study
of the role of ideas of Slavonic identity in the process of the formation of the modern
Czech nation, and undoubtedly the study of gender identities in the discourse of the
humanities in the 19th and 20th century conducted by D. Tinková23.
The largest group of projects in which the themes of borders and identities naturally
intersected consisted of research concerned with the subject of nationalism, national
movements or national (ethnic) minorities, and within this group we can distinguish
roughly five sub-sets. Aspects of nationalism, or national revival were studied by E. Irmanová, for example, using the case of Slovak-Hungarian relations, by D. Uhlíř (the
Czech national revival in the Metternich era) or K. Kaiserová, M. Melanová and M.
Macková (the nationalisation of society in Bohemia in the later 19th century and early
20th century) 24. A number of projects investigated relationships between different nations, ethnic groups or nation states mainly in the Central European context – whether
focusing on Czech-German settlement (E. Drašnarová), Slovak-Hungarian relations
(once again E. Irmanová), projects for a Central European union (L. Švec), CzechLusatian Serb relations (P. Kaleta) or Czechoslovak-Polish relations in the 1940s ( J.
Friedl)25. The other subsets were projects focused on the fortunes of Czech refugees
and Czech minorities abroad ( J. Pospíšilová, S. Brouček, K. Štěpánek), in the ethnically mixed environment of the Czech borderlands (M. Trapl, O. Šrajerová) or in the
period of post-war repatriation of Czechs from abroad ( J. Vaculík)26, and projects investigating the status of other ethnic minorities in Czechoslovakia (K. Kadlubiec, M.
Gawrecká, J. Matějček, F. Raška), or in one case foreigners in Moravia in the 18th and
19th centuries (Z. Stoklásková)27. We may consider research into the post-war fate of
Jews or the problem of Antisemitism (H. Krejčová, M. Borák, D. Schaller) or the life of
Moravian Romanies from the mid-18th to the mid-20th century, as a subgroup of the
last named subset28.
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The second largest group of projects in purely historical research were those concerned
with characterising and mapping variously defined elites, social groups, associations or
political parties, while M. Lenderová tackled transformations of elites in Czech conditions from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century and M.
Vojtášek the position of women in the national elite of that period, M. Vaněk and P.
Urbášek exploited the methods of “oral history” to define and explore the mutually
opposed positions of political elites and dissent in communist Czechoslovakia29. One
specific group represented projects concerned with the (Bohemian) nobility and noble
society in the early modern period ( J. Hrdlička, V. Bůžek) and in the period of post-war
exile after 1945 (R. Slabáková)30, while the opposite pole to the interest were projects
investigating the life of particular social groups of “people on the margin” (P. Himl, J.
Čechura)31. A relatively large category was made up of heterogeneous projects on the
formation and activities of Czech political groupings, parties and associations from the
end of the 19th to the end of the 20th century ( J. Čechurová, K. Jechová, M. Pavka, P.
Cibulka, L. Vykoupil)32.
Another important group consisted of projects concerned with questions of economic
history in the context of the creation of Czech (Czechoslovak) or Central European
economic spheres of influence (for example the projects of J. Janek, V. Lacina, E. Kubů,
and J. Hájek), conditions in the Czech rural areas (A. Kostlán), currency problems (R.
Zaoral) elements of economic nationalism (T. Jiránek), relating to periods from the
13th century to the 20th century33.
A group of roughly the same size consisted of contributions touching on themes of
identity or borders in the context of the study of urban themes (mostly in Bohemia and
Moravia) – from the subject of urban government ( J. Kejř, J. Mezník, M. Flodr), to the
social topography of Bohemian towns and tributary towns in the Late Middle Ages or
Early Modern Period (M. Nodl, J. Hrdlička) to the study of the creation of urban elites
(L. Fasora) or a comparison of the transformations of urban society on the threshold of
the modern age in Central European perspective ( J. Miller)34.
The last two groups of historical projects involving the question of borders and identities are firstly projects concerned with regional history or the creation of political
boundaries and secondly projects exploring encounters and/or clashes with cultural or
religious otherness. In the former three main themes predominate: research into the
consequences of the establishment of new political borders (E. Irmanová), the formation and development of a particular region (D. Gawrecki, O. Felcman, E. Semotanová,
V. Wolf ) and the question of the settlement of the Czech border regions during and
after the Second World War (Z. Radvanovský, J. Bartoš, J. Toms, V. Kural, F. Čapka)35.
In the latter group we find a study of Austrian envoys to the Ottoman Empire in the
earlier 17th century by P. Štěpánek, while I. Čornejová, J. Šebek and J. Cuhra examine,
respectively, themes of the church orders during the recatholicisation after the White
Mountain, Sudeten German Catholicism and the relationship between the state and
the Roman Catholic Church in Socialist Czechoslovakia36.
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When we examine published results of research, we see that the group of historians
taking up themes of borders and identities is orientated to interdisciplinary methodological inspiration. In the last thirteen or fifteen years such historiography has focused mainly on research into national identity in relation to nationalism or national
movements. The most recent syntheses concerned inter alia with questions of nation
identity (Czech, Austrian, German) notably include Jiří Kořalka’s Češi v habsburské
říši a v Evropě 1815-1914: sociálněhistorické souvislosti vytváření novodobého národa a
národnostní otázky v českých zemích37 [Czechs in the Habsburg Empire and in Europe
1815-1914: Social historical contexts of the creation of the modern nation and questions of nationality in the Czech Lands] and two monographs by Miroslav Hroch
directed to comparative analysis of the demands and goals of European nations and
problems of the origins and creation of modern Czech nation38. Questions of identity and the image of the other in historical perspective have also been to the forefront of publications by the Seminar for General and Comparative History [SGCH]
founded by Hroch at the CU Faculty of Arts and Philosophy. This seminar has now
produced a total of four collections devoted to analysis of the image of the other, the
creation of identities, stereotypes and associated phenomena from literary historical
or social-scientific perspectives as well as purely historical viewpoints39. The introductions to the collections provide a good guide to the way in which the research team’s
approach has changed and developed, especially the understanding of problems of
identity. Particularly in the second of these collections the SGCH formulated in detail its theoretical premises for the further study of the question of “Us” and “Them”
with an eye to the problems of the study of identities40. The introduction to the fourth
collection includes retrospective methodological reflections and suggests the way in
which the approach to the problem of alterity and identity has moved on in the last
twenty years41.
Another work, which explores the application of theoretical concepts of self-identification and of collective identities involving a focus on the question of local/national
identities and patriotism, is a monograph by M. Řezník. He analysed the phenomenon
of shared or multiple identities in urban and aristocratic elites in Royal Prussia in the
period of the Partitions of Poland42. The question of the nation as a historical and social
phenomenon in Hussite Bohemia has been tackled by F. Šmahel43. In contrast, J. Křen
has focused on the historical transformations of Czechhood and J. Malíř or P. Lozoviuk
on questions of national identity in Moravia and Moravianhood44.
Recently there has been increasing interest among Czech historians in various aspects
of Jewish studies. In this field attention has been directed, for example, to questions associated with national and religious or cultural identity among Czech Jews and analysis
of stereotypes of Jews in Czech society45.
The phenomenon of borders has been considered in mainstream Czech historiography
only in the sense of political (territorial) borders. Two works of synthesis on governmental history and the history of the state and law have touched on the legal and administrative context of territorial borders46.
115
Classically conceived studies include Dušan Janák’s work on the demarcation of the
Czech-Polish border in 1948-196047, or Vladislav Razím’s work on the protection of
the frontiers of the Bohemian state in the 13th century48. A rather broader and more
interdisciplinary conceived approach to borders and borderlands has been attempted
by the authors of the collection Kultury na hranici [Cultures on the Border]. This collection was the fruit of co-operation between Czech and Austrian specialists and is
concerned with political, cultural, economic and trading relations in the Czech-Austrian borderland from the Middle Ages to the present. The authors focus on the question of the functioning of the border in the border areas, i.e. the permeability of the
frontier49. Thorough archival research is the basis for the several-volume Czech-Bavarian study by Jiří Jánský, who deals primarily with border conflicts and legal changes
in the topographical location of the frontier50. D. Trávníček adopts similarly classical
approaches in his articles51. State or territorial borders are also subjects touched on by
works of political geography such as the encyclopaedically structured handbooks by
František Honzák or Josef Opatrný52.
Historical interest in borders with an interdisciplinary angle has been evident in a few
studies devoted to urban history, in particular to the formation of cultural identities
and symbolic borders in urban space. The most notable of these is the doctoral research
of the Olomouc historian Jaroslav Miller on immigration to the towns and internal
conditions in the early modern towns of Central Europe, as yet published only in
part53. The urban environment has been analysed as a display case of society and part of
collective identity by Luďa Klusáková in her studies of the image of Ottoman towns in
the Balkans, separated from Central Europe not only by state frontiers, but by historical, cultural and religious borders54. A promising broader focus and interdisciplinary
approach to the study of identities is already evident in the work of ethnology and history graduate and specialist in American studies Markéta Křížová. She has been analysing the missions of the Jesuits and the Moravian Brethren to Spanish America and in
the colonies of non-Catholic states on the continent and islands on the basis of source
material from Czech, German and Mexican archives. She has published the results in
her doctoral thesis, in which she has surprisingly discovered considerable similarity between both the ideal projects and the practical activities of Catholic and Protestant
missionaries on the American continent in the 17th and 18th centuries55.
Ethnology
and
Anthropology
Czech ethnology has a great deal in common with history and has by its nature been
orientated to research into cultural identities with a dimension of historical analysis.
In the period monitored 16 projects involving these disciplines and issues of borders
and identities were carried out, 10 of them conceived as historical research. L. Volbrachtová’s historical project was concerned with the formation of specific identities in
integration processes relating to Sudeten Germans56, while J. Vařeka studied the development of European cultural identity57.
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Other historically conceived projects addressed the subject of new ethnic minorities
living in the Czech Republic (S. Brouček), and the regional history of the Jewish population (M. Lhotová, L. Nesládková)58, while another group focused on cultural themes,
and above all religious difference (P. Charvát, M. Holubová, Z. Nešpor), specifically
the cases of Judaism and secret non-Catholics59. This group of historically orientated
projects also includes the production of a historical atlas of Czech towns (E. Semotanová) and research into the origins of Czech statehood (P. Sommer)60.
The remaining projects focused mainly on individual regions while presenting a very
diverse range of themes in archaeology (M. Kuna and the development of settlement
in the context of landscape zones), anthropology (V. Kovářů, A. Jeřábková with a plan
for the regeneration of monument zones) or ethnology ( J. Štika, V. Tomolová and their
study of folk culture in a border region using the example of Těšínsko)61. Projects devoted to initiation ceremonies and funeral rituals (A. Navrátilová) or the demarcation
of ethnographical areas in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia ( J. Vařeka) also contributed to
research on identities and border62.
Ethnologists have produced a great deal of work on specific social or ethnic groups:
the Banat or Croat Czechs, the life and culture of smugglers, ethnic minorities in the
Czech Republic or the themes of regional identities and cultures, Moravian identity or
dietary cultures63.
The most important works in this area include, for example, Zdeněk Uherek’s studies
of the construction of Czech national identity, Czechs in Bosnia, and Romany migrations in Central Europe64. Ethnological research has also used questionnaire surveys,
for example research in 1992-1996 on questions of consciousness of Czech identity and
perceived membership of the Czech nation65. Among more theoretically focused works
Josef Vařeka’s study on the relationship between cultural border and national identity
should be mentioned66.
As an academic discipline anthropology in the Czech Republic is generally closely connected with ethnology and from the point of view of interest in the theme of borders
and identities it tends to form a continuum with the ethnologically orientated studies.
Ladislav Holý’s book Malý český člověk a skvělý český národ: národní identity a postkomunistická transformace [The Small Czech Person and the Great Czech Nation: National
identities and post-communist transformation], devoted to contemporary post-1989
Czech national identity is a study on the borders of the three academic disciplines of
sociology, ethnology, and anthropology67. A no less important study is Ivo T. Budil’s
Od prvotního jazyka k rase: utváření novověké západní identity v kontextu orientální renesance [From Primordial Language to Race: the forging of modern western identity in
the context of oriental renaissance], which is concerned mainly with questions of the
formation of modern western identity as something to which Czech culture is staking
a claim for renewed membership and at the same time subjecting to a series of discussions68. Also worth noting is the interdisciplinary approach to the subject of the CzechPolish border, involving questions of Silesian identity from the pen of Tadeusz Siwek
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of Ostrava University. In his writings the author draws on a range of the most recent
methodological angles such as mental mapping, for example69.
Sociology
As in the preceding case, here too a number of projects were conceived historically
(out of 18 sociological grant-funded projects 5 were also classified as historical). One
of the historical-sociological projects was concerned with the theme of identities in the
context of the perception of what was known as the Czech Question (M. Havelka)70,
another with the impact of the creation of a border on the life of a region (M. Rychlíková)71, two on urban elites at the turn of the 19th/20th century (P. Kladiwa, A. Pokludová)72 and one on transformations in the structure of the Romany population at the
edges of the Ostrava agglomeration in the later 20th century (N. Pavelčíková) 73.
The largest group of relevant projects in sociology tackled themes relating to the Czech
borderlands or neighbouring areas (above all the Czech-Polish and Czech-German borders), mainly in connection with the ongoing process of European integration (F. Zich,
J. Premusová, M. Jeřábek, Q. Kastner, T. Havlíček, S. Řehák, P. Viliam, J, Dokoupil, J.
Anděl, V. Houžvička); these projects often involved the co-operation of broader research teams from various different institutions74. One isolated project focused on a
specific border region was Siwek’s exploration of the mental map of Czech Silesia75.
A separate, but very heterogeneous group consisted of sociological projects devoted to different aspects of the transformation of Czech society since 1989 (J. Buriánek, C. Škoda,
L. Brokl), in one case a comparison of national cultures in economic practice (I. Nový) or
a study of the political preferences of Czechoslovak citizens in 1968 (L. Brokl) 76.
From the published results we can see that over the last thirteen years Czech sociology
has been turning above all to quantitative research on problems linked with borders
and the Czech borderlands, particularly in connection with the accession of the Czech
Republic to the European Union. This theme has been intensively addressed by specialists from the Sociological Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences under the
direction of Václav Houžvička. His team focuses on the Czech-German borderlands
and has been monitoring socio-economic conditions and trends in the area today, the
impact of the entry of the CR into the EU and prospects for the development of the
area. Additionally the team of sociologists has been monitoring expressions of ambivalence in attitudes to Germany77. Since 2003 V. Houžvička has been concentrating more
on questions of the civic dimension of Czech-German relations in the period of Czech
accession to the European Union78.
A second area of interest for Czech sociology centres on the attitude of the Czech public to other nations and to immigrants. The theme is one that has been handled through
quantitative survey primarily by the Centre for Research into Public Opinion. The attitude of Czech citizens to immigrants conceived in terms of the contrast between “us”
and “them” is a research theme that has been explored by Yana Leontieva79.
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Deeper and more wide-ranging Czech sociological treatments of the general area include for example the research of Klára Vlachová and Blanka Řeháková on national
identity in the sense of the concept of the nation and the phenomenon of national
pride in Europe. The authors have looked at a total of eleven European nations, and
their study combines quantitative survey with attention to the theoretical framework
of national identity and nationalism80. Theoretical questions of the construction of
identity as a social phenomenon have been the focus of work by Ivo Hlaváč. His article
Identita jako sociální konstrukce [Identity as a Social Construction] is available on the
Internet pages of Brno University81.
Politics
What is in many respects a new discipline in the context of Czech social sciences, i.e.
“politics” as an academic subject (known as “politology” and the equivalent of “political science”), has been producing its own sociological scholarship. It emerged as an
entirely separate discipline in the Czech republic at the beginning of the 1990s and
under the influence of both sociology and legal sciences began to turn to the study of
questions relating to the political demarcation of Czech political space82.
In the period under review quite a number of projects in political studies and sciences
involved attention to identities and borders, and of these two thirds were also historical projects, which means that also historians were responsible for them (there was a
total of 12 combined historical-political research projects out of an overall 17 political science projects). The historically conceived projects fell into two main groups, the
first focused on problems of the political programmes of Czech political parties in the
later 19th century (P. Cibulka) and the theme of Moravian and Bohemian Catholicism
(P. Fiala, J. Hanuš, M. Trapl)83, and the second concerned with specific social groups,
such as Czech emigrant communities, exiles or national (ethnic) minorities (M. Trapl,
J. Pernes, R. Petráš), the transformation of Czech social elites (nobles) in the process
of modernisation (L. Velek) or outlawed and persecuted central European minorities
in the 20th century (K. Čapková, J. Pernes)84. The other historically conceived political
studies projects dealt with the disintegration of Yugoslavia and Czech-Polish relations
(M. Tejchman, E. Maur)85.
The remaining four purely political science projects concentrated directly on the theme
of identities – one on their creation in Central European context (P. Marek), one on the
formation of political identities since 1989 (R. Marada) one on prospects for a specifically European security identity (R. Khol), and one on the special status of the Sudeten
German question in Czech-German relations and specifically in the Czech borderlands
(V. Houžvička)86.
In the emancipated political sciences the first comprehensive analytical studies have
emerged defining Czech political space and its borders at the general level87 and in particular seeking to establish differences of identity between Czech and Slovak space88.
These studies have a specific character that reflects the preceding absence of the dis-
119
cipline in Czech academic life, i.e. they attempt to provide a historical dimension. In
this respect current Czech political science is as it were a point of intersection between
sociology, philosophy and history and an essential complement to all of them. The
themes of Czech-German relations and questions of tolerance and discrimination have
appeared in political science studies89.
In political scientific analyses since the mid-1990s a focus on Czech identity and its
territorial basis had been supplemented by attempts to give the issue a proper European
dimension. Here we have seen the first studies aiming to define European political borders in connection with the process of the integration of the Czech Republic into the
EU90. These studies are still relatively descriptive in character, however, and are not yet
based on deeper or longer-term analysis.
As far as political science is concerned, a separate category consists of studies concerned
with the comparative analysis of very specific identity and border problems. Currently
a particularly important theme is migration. In the frame of analysis of transformation
processes considerable attention has been directed to questions of attitudes to minorities (here interest focuses primarily on the Romany population and immigrants from
the Third World)91. Studies on citizenship and on human and civil rights and their role
in the emergence of a new Czech political identity have appeared as integral parts of
analysis of the democratisation of Czech society92. Additionally, and most recently the
interdisciplinary study of gender has been developing as part of analytical social science, although it cannot easily be aligned with any “historically older” discipline. The
focus on gendered identities and the role of women in the processes of modern nation
building studies Jitka Malečková for whom the comparative perspective is essential. Being historian, specialist in Ottoman studies and gender at a time she sees the attitude of
the society towards women and changes in their social role as one of crucial manifestation of modernization in semiperipheral and peripheral regions of Europe and uses it
as a criteria of comparison93.
In the 1990s a considerable amount of work also appeared on the theme of the nation
as political community in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. The central issue in these analyses was the relationship between national identity and democratic territorial government. The most striking contributions here are from P. Barša, who on the
basis of international experience as well as academic findings has analysed South Slav
territory and the conflicts that have arisen there94. Following on from his work we find
the studies by M. Strmiska95 or B. Říchová96 concerned with the analysis of the national
identities of nations or ethnic groups without states in the countries of the EU.
Other Social Science Disciplines
The subject of borders and identities is one that is increasingly being explored on the
basis of interdisciplinary co-operation, with results that cannot be categorised as belonging to any single academic discipline. Alongside history, sociology, ethnology and
anthropology other social sciences have also been exploring the theme. Paradoxically
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the largest group of projects that can be included in this category consists of essentially
historical projects concerned above all with the collection, documentation and publication of source material, and for that reason generally classified as “documentation,
librarianship, work with information”, and in some cases (depending on the material
involved) under “art, architecture, cultural legacy” or “written materials, mass-media,
audiovisual”. The projects of this documentary kind are in many cases concerned with
different sides of the activity and organisation of Czechoslovak exile communities and
institutions (V. Prečan, M. Kouřil, O. Tůma, J. Vaculík), in one case the diplomacy of
the Czechoslovak government in exile during the Second World War ( J. Němeček)97.
In the category of protection and conservation of cultural legacy most projects were directed to producing editions of cartographic, iconographic or other sources (E. Semotanová, A. Baďurová), or cataloguing other (visual) materials, for example research into
the “myth of Frederick of the Palatinate” or confessional identities in the Bohemian
lands at the end of the Middle Ages ( J. Miller, M. Šroněk, M. Bartlová)98. In the case of
five projects under the rubric “written materials, mass-media, audiovisual” we find grant
projects mapping Czech publishing activity in the 19th and 20th century (A. Zach), an
analysis of national revivalist prose works in Czech magazines at the turn of the 18th/
19th century (L. Kusáková), a comparative treatment of Central European historical
thought and literary narration in the period of the rise of the modern movement in
literature that is particularly interesting from the point of view of the formation (adoption) of collective identities (L. Řezníková) and account of anti-Czechoslovak media
propaganda put out by the Third Reich (P. Zeman), as well as a project presenting the
West Bohemian region ( J. Kumpera)99. One distinct group consists of three history of
law projects mapping the development of Czech constitutional law and changes in land
criminal law in Bohemia and Moravia (K. Malý, M. Kadlecová)100.
In terms of relevance to the themes of borders and identity, eight projects in the category
of “economics” represent a separate section. Two of these, one concerning the history of
taxation ( J. Marek, K. Kubátová, J. Široký, V. Vybíhal) and the other currency exchange
relations in Central Europe at the beginning of the modern period (P. Vorel), may also be
characterised as essentially historical projects101. Of the other, purely economic projects,
some were concerned specifically with border regions (M. Viturka, R. Wokoun, J. Beck),
some with criteria and methods for assessing the environment in towns ( J. Macháček),
and some with the overcoming of barriers in connection with the integration of the
Czech Republic into the European Union (V. Kubišta, A. Putnová, M. Rašticová)102.
Looking at the other projects it remains for us to note four grant-funded projects in the
category “philosophy and religion” which in general touch on the theme of identities
( J. Pechar, Z. Kratochvíl, M. Petříček), use historical examples to consider the development of the “Czech Question” (M. Havelka) or offer a theological view of the past and
present of the Uniate Church (W. Bugel)103, as well as individual fine arts projects relating to the interpretation of cultural identity in literature (V. Svatoň, H. Lorenzová) and
a group of education and psychology projects investigating the possibilities of history
teaching in the creation of identities (H. Mandelová), the boundaries between good
121
and evil among Czech adolescents (M. Tyrlík), personality characteristics and styles of
identity (I. Čermák, P. Macek) or the psychological dimensions of democratic citizenship (M. Klicperová)104. To complete the survey of contributions related to our overall
themes we should not forget two projects carried out in the “philology and linguistic
science” programme: these concern Czech discourse in the definition of cultural communities and adoption of their identities (S. Čmejrková) and the creation of the “image
of the other” in media treatment of ethnic minorities ( J. Nekvapil)105.
One of published examples is a collection by the Czech Geographical Society devoted
to the problem of borderlands and borders, which includes articles focused on the historical geographic aspects of the definition of borderlands, the theoretical concept of
borderlands and of political borders in general106. Another typical example of a primarily geographical approach can be found, for example in S. Řehák’s work on contacts
over the Czech-Slovak border after the division of Czechoslovakia107. By contrast, Milan Pokorný for example has explored the theme of national identity as a philosophicalhistorical phenomenon on the basis of national literatures108.
Conclusion
Although in our article we map primarily the research on the intersection of frontiers
and identities through the lens of national perspective, what we see as most important
is that it is open to transnational inspiration, and that it motivates the researchers to
adopt, at least in some cases, also comparative perspectives. Most fruitful was the research focussed on modern nation building, patriotism and nationalism of the end of
20th century, and of course on perspectives of European integration109. This can be
demonstrated also by participation in international research projects and in publications of results for wider – international – readership110.
Notes
* This chapter was written with support of the research scheme MSM0021620827, “Czech Lands in the
Middle of Europe, Past and Present”, held by the Faculty of Philosophy and Arts of the Charles Univerity in Prague.
1
The institutional project organiser was the Faculty of Philosophy and Arts of the Charles University
in Prague and the project director was Zdeněk Beneš (AB MSM112100004, see: http://www.msmt.
cz/cp1250/skupina3/hankeweb/Vzseznam_HK1.htm).
2
Doctoral research project, by Martina Krocová: Territorial – Land borders as Common Life Experience.
3
Doctoral research project, by Veronika Sušová: State Identity in Multi-Ethnic Monarchies.
4
Borders and Identities in the Perspective of Urban History are studied by Luďa Klusáková and also by
Jaroslav Miller at the Palacký University in Olomouc.
5
Doctoral research project by Jaroslav Ira: Local and National Identity in the Historiography of Towns
in the Czech Lands in the Context of Central Europe in the Last Third of the 19th Century.
6
In this category we can place study of educational policy and the use of “new” languages (e.g. Welsh
122
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8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
or Gaelic, Breton and so on) or programmes demanding the acknowledgment of specific regionally
defined language forms (Northern Italy and Padania as specific identity).
In Czech politics a relevant theme is the question of the Tradition of St. Wenceslas and its tendentious interpretation in political discourse in the mid-1990s, and likewise the traditions appealing to the
legacy of Jan Hus or the commemoration of St. Cyril and St. Methodius and their importance for the
formation of national identity in the region. On the Slovak political scene the discussion of the relation
of the Slovaks to the Greater Moravian Empire played a very important role.
Projects from the perspective of political sciences were designed by Blanka Říchová.
Ondřej Daniel: Historical Narrations of ex-Yugoslav Diasporas exiled in Western Europe, during the
Contemporary Period, doctoral research project.
As defined by Marc Augé: the aim is to study the conception of the history in the way that the studied
community understands it itself. “Sous le terme d’‘ethno-histoire’, les ethnologues ont moins prétendu
faire l´histoire des peuples qu´ils étudiaient que comprendre leur conception de l´histoire ou, plus
exactement, la concepiton que ces peuples se faisaient de leur histoire”. M. Augé, Pour une anthropologie des mondes contemporains, Paris 1994, p. 18-19, English translation: M. Augé, An Anthropology for
Contemporaneous Worlds, Stanford 1999.
With reference mainly to the works of Carlo Ginzburg and Peter Englund.
In the sense of work with the narratives of the informants, see C. Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures,
New York 1973.
Quoting mainly the conception of Tzvetan Todorov “the Abuse of Memory” (orig. T. Todorov, Les
Abus de la mémoire, Paris 1995). The concept of ‘Memory related to the Collectivity’ departs from M.
Halbwachs, The Social Frameworks of Memory, Chicago 1992 (first edition, M. Halbwachs, Les cadres
sociaux de la mémoire, Paris 1925).
The studies of social perceptions of the landscape by Simon Schama and Yu-Fu Tuan.
One example might be provided by the Croatian community in France, which tends to commemorate
the anti-German uprising of the Croatian SS corps in France during World War II (with the aim of presenting the Croatian community as a whole as antifascist). The same ethnic community located in Austria
on the contrary tends to accentuate the anticommunist character of the same national history related to
another historical event of World War II – the extradition of right-wing fugitives to the new communist
Yugoslavia by the British occupation authorities and their rapid executions by Tito’s partisans.
M. Smagacz - O. Seweryn, Frontiers and Identity: Sociological Perspective; L. Vörös, Methodological and
Theoretical Aspects of ‘Social Identities’ Research in Historiography; and O. Daniel, Slavoj Žižek, the Enfant-Terrible of Contemporary Social Sciences: Writing about the Other and about Ethnic Conflicts in the
Balkans, all in this volume.
P. Sahlins, Boundaries. The Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees, Berkeley-Los Angeles-Oxford
1989, p. 8. Later contributions to the debate are A. Gingrich, Frontier Myths of Orientalism. The Muslim World in Public and Popular Cultures of Central Europe, in B. Baskar - B. Borut, Mediterranean
Ethnological School, vol. II, Ljubjana 1996; M.W. Lewis - K.E. Wiegen, The Myth of Continents: A Critique of Metageography, Los Angeles 1997; R.P. Geraci, Windows on the East. National and Imperial
Identities in Late Tsarist Russia, Ithaca-London 2001.
A.D. Smith, National Identity, London 1991; S.N. Eisenstadt - B. Giesen, The Construction of Collective
Identity, “Archives européennes de Sociologie”, XXXVI, 1995, pp. 72-84.
B. Anderson, Imagined Communities, New York 1983.
From his recent work on the theme see e.g. B. Geremek, Poverty: a history, Oxford-Cambridge, Mass.
1994 (it first appeared under the title La pietà e la forca: storia della miseria e della carità in Europa, Bari
1986); B. Geremek, Les fils de Cain: l’image des pauvres et des vagabonds dans la littérature européenne
du XVe au XVIIe siècle, Paris 1991; B. Geremek, Świat “opery żebraczej”: obraz włóczęgów i nędzarzy
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
123
w literaturach europejskich XV-XVII wieku, Warsaw 1989; B. Geremek, Inutiles au monde: truands et
misérables dans l’Europe moderne (1350-1600), Paris 1980.
H. Ahrweiler, L’image de l’autre: étrangers, minoritaires, marginaux. L’image de l’autre et les mécanismes de l’altérité in Rapports /Actes II / Comité international des sciences historiques, XVIe congrès
international des sciences historiques, Stuttgart du 25 août au 1er septembre 1985, Stuttgart 1986,
[Réd.: August Nitschke] pp. 60-66; B. Geremek, L’image de l’autre: le marginal, in Ibid., pp. 67-81
and M. Mollat du Jourdin, L’image de l’autre dans la mentalité occidentale à la fin du moyen âge, in
Ibid., pp. 95-105.
This data is taken from the information database of the Council for Research and Development/Rada
pro výzkum a vývoj (http://www.vlada.cz/1250/rvv/), an official specialist and consultative organ of
the government of the Czech republic see http://www.vyzkum.cz/.
Česká mythologie – pokus o rekonstrukci (IAA9015804, 01/1998-12/2002, Dušan Třeštík, Historical
Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Zemské identity v raném novověku: přetrvávání
stavovské jednoty v politicky rozdělených zemích (Prusy, Pomořany, Meklenbursko) (GA404/00/P006,
01/2000-12/2002, Miloš Řezník, Faculty of Philosophy and Arts, Charles University in Prague). Slovanství v procesu formování novodobého českého národa. (České politické myšlení a praxe) (IAA8015103,
01/2001-12/2004, Radomír Vlček, Historical Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague).
Studium formování genderových identit v diskursu humanitních věd v souvislosti s procesy modernizace
(18.-19. stol.) (GP409/03/P178, 01/2003-12/2005, Daniela Tinková, Faculty of Philosophy and Arts,
CU Prague).
Výklad společných dějin – fenomén nacionalismu v maďarsko-slovenských vztazích v 19.a 20. století
(IAA9015908, 01/1999-12/2001, Eva Irmanová, Historical Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences in Prague). Metternichova politika a české země (České národní obrození v kontextu rakouského
státu) (GA409/00/0510, 01/2000-12/2002, Dušan Uhlíř, Philosophical-Natural Scientific Faculty, Silesian University, Opava). Nacionalizace společnosti v Čechách 1848-1914 (GA409/04/0892,
01/2004-12/2006, Kristína Kaiserová - Miloslava Melanová - Marie Macková, University of Jan Evangelista Purkyně in Ústí nad Labem, Faculty of Education of the Technical University in Liberec, Faculty
of Humanities of the University of Pardubice).
Edice pramenů k česko-německému vyrovnání v posledních desetiletích habsburské monarchie
(GA409/01/0209, 01/2001-12/2003, Eva Drašarová, State Central Archives in Prague). Maďarská
menšina na Slovensku a její místo v zahraniční politice Slovenska a Maďarska po roce 1989 (IAA7015201,
01/2002-12/2003, Eva Irmanová, Historical Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences in Prague).
Plány spolupráce a demokratizace střední Evropy: Středoevropská unie (IAA8104401, 01/2004-12/2006,
Luboš Švec, Faculty of Social Sciences of CU in Prague). Česko – lužickosrbské vztahy v 19. a 20.století
(GA409/04/0354, 01/2004-12/2006, Petr Kaleta, Masarykův ústav AV ČR Praha). Československopolské vztahy v letech 1943-1949 (GA409/05/2762, 01/2005-12/2007, Jiří Friedl, Commercial Faculty at the Karviná Silesian University in Opava).
Národopisný výzkum české menšiny ve Vídni (IAA958404, 1994-1995, Jana Pospíšilová, Ethnological Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences in Prague ). Češi ve Francii v letech 1862-1938. Vystěhovalectví
z českých zemí do Francie a způsob života Čechů v prostředí francouzské společnosti (GA404/95/0103,
1995-1997, Stanislav Brouček, Ethnological Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences in Prague).
České národně politické aktivity v pohraničních oblastech českých zemí v první Československé republice
(1918-1938) (GA409/00/0126, 01/2000-12/2002, Miloš Trapl - Olga Šrajerová, Philosophical Faculty, Palacký University in Olomouc, Museum of Silesia in Opava). Poválečná reemigrace a repatriace
Čechů z ciziny (GA409/01/0986, 01/2001-12/2003, Jaroslav Vaculík, Education Faculty of the
Marsaryk University, Brno). Češi v cizině 1850-1938 (GA409/04/0562, 01/2004-12/2006, Kamil
Štěpánek, Education Faculty, MU Brno).
Poláci v České republice (GA404/95/0289, 1995-1997, Karel Kadlubiec, Ostrava University in Ostrava). Němci ve Slezsku 1918-1938 (GA409/00/0726, 01/2000 - 12/2002, Marie Gawrecká, Silesian
124
28
29
30
31
32
33
University in Opava). Vzory chování středních vrstev národnostních menšin v českých zemích 19181938 (GA409/00/0800, 01/2000-12/2002, Jiří Matějček, Museum of Silesia in Opava). Treuegemeinschaft sudetendeutscher Sozialdemokraten a plány československé exilové vlády pro německou menšinu
(GP409/01/P100, 01/2001-12/2003, Francis Raška, Institute for Contemporary History of the
Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Zákonodárství a praxe pro cizince na Moravě. Vznik silného státu
v Rakousku (1750-1867) (GA404/05/2339, 01/2005-12/2005, Zdeňka Stoklásková, Faculty of Arts,
MU Brno).
Židovská problematika a antisemitismus ve světle retribučních soudů 1945-1948 (IAA9063902,
01/1999-12/2002, Helena Krejčová - Mečislav Borák - Dieter Schallner, Institute for Contemporary
History of the Czech Academy of Sciences in Prague, Museum of Silesia in Opava, Palacký University
Olomouc). Moravští Romové v letech 1740-1945 (GA409/02/0061, 01/2002 - 12/2004, Ctibor Nečas,
Philosophical Faculty, MU Brno).
Proměny elit v Čechách 1780-1918 (GA409/00/0256, 01/2000-12/2002, Milena Lenderová, Educational Faculty, South Bohemian University, České Budějovice). Politické elity a disent v období tzv.
normalizace. Životopisná interviews (GA409/02/1156, 01/2002-12/2004, Miroslav Vaněk - Pavel
Urbášek, Institute for Contemporary History of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Palacký University Olomouc). Reflexe a sebereflexe ženy v české národní elitě 2. poloviny 19. století (GA409/05/2078,
01/2005-12/2007, Milan Vojtášek, National Archives).
Geneze raně novověkého aristokratického dvora (GA404/00/P017, 01/2000-12/2002, Josef Hrdlička,
South Bohemian University České Budějovice). Šlechta Čech a Moravy v exilu po roce 1945 (GP409/01/
P095, 01/2001-12/2003, Radmila Slabáková, Philosophical Faculty, Palacký University, Olomouc).
Ferdinand II. Tyrolský a šlechtická společnost druhé poloviny 16. století (Integrační procesy v habsburské
monarchii) (GA404/03/1509, 01/2003-12/2005, Václav Bůžek, South Bohemian University České
Budějovice).
Podvodníci, tuláci, vagabundi. Společný obraz, pronásledování a subkultura skupin neusedlého obyvatelstva raně novověkých Čech (GP404/01/P108, 01/2001-12/2003, Pavel Himl, Institute for Classical
Studies of the Czech Academy of Sciences Prague). Kriminalita a každodennost. Jednání a chování
prostých lidí v raném novověku (GA404/04/1198, 01/2004-12/2006, Jaroslav Čechura, Faculty of Philosophy and Arts, CU Prague).
České svobodné zednářství ve 20. století (GA409/00/P034, 01/2000-12/2002, Jana Čechurová, Faculty of Philosophy and Arts, CU Prague). Lidé a společenství Charty 77 (ICE8063304, 01/200312/2003, Květa Jechová, Institute for Contemporary History of the Czech Academy of Sciences
Prague). Kádrová politika KSČ z hlediska teorie elit (prvních pět let komunistické vlády) (ICE8063305,
01/2003-12/2003, Marek Pavka, Institute for Contemporary History of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). České národní strany v letech 1891-1918 (IAA8015301, 01/2003-12/2006, Pavel
Cibulka, Historical Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Česká politická pravice na
Moravě (GA409/03/1130, 01/2003-12/2005, Libor Vykoupil, Faculty of Arts, MU Brno).
Vývoj vědy a techniky v českých zemích ve středoevropském kontextu /1860-1918/ (GA401/94/1888,
1994-1996, Jan Janko, Charles University, Prague). Dynamika hospodářského vývoje meziválečného
Československa v kontextu střední Evropy (IAA915405, 1994-1995, Vlastislav Lacina, Historical Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague), Koexistence či konfrontace? Československo-německé
hospodářské vztahy v letech 1929-38 (GA404/96/0300, 1996-1998, Eduard Kubů, Faculty of Philosophy and Arts, CU Prague). Český venkov 1470-1530 (GA404/97/0844, 1997-1998, Antonín Kostlán,
Archives of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Hospodářská desintegrace střední Evropy po roce
1918, vznik samostatné československé ekonomiky a snahy o opětovnou ekonomickou reintegraci regionu
(GA409/99/0401, 01/1999-12/2001, Jan Hájek, Historical Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Od celní unie k protektorátu. Německé úsilí o ekonomické podmanění Československa za druhé
republiky (GA409/00/0059, 01/2000-12/2001, Eduard Kubů, Faculty of Philosophy and Arts, CU
Prague). Projevy hospodářského nacionalismu v obchodních a živnostenských komorách v českých zemích v
době habsburské monarchie (GA409/01/0249, 01/2001-12/2003, Tomáš Jiránek, University of Pardu-
125
bice). Měnové poměry střední Evropy ve druhé polovině 13. století (GA404/05/0734, 01/2005-12/2007,
Roman Zaoral, Faculty of Humanities, CU Prague).
Vznik městského zřízení v českých zemích (GA404/96/0187, 1996-1997, Jiří Kejř, Fyzická osoba bez
IČO). Městské zřízení a středověké osídlení na moravsko-slezském pomezí. Výbor z článků a studií Jaroslava Bakala (GA404/01/1262, 01/2001-12/2001, Jaroslav Mezník, Masaryk University, Brno).
Brněnské městské právo, zakladatelské období r. 1359 (GA404/00/1263, 01/2000-12/2001, Miroslav Flodr, Masaryk University, Brno). Aristokratická rezidence a poddanské město v raném novověku
(IAB9142901, 01/1999-12/2001, Josef Hrdlička, South Bohemian University, České Budějovice). Sociální topografie českých pozdně středověkých měst (GA404/00/1540, 01/2000-12/2002, Martin Nodl,
Philosophy Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences Prague). Elita občanských vrstev velkoměsta v
kontextu společenské a technické modernizace 1850-1914 (na příkladu města Brna) (GP409/04/P064,
01/2004-12/2006, Lukáš Fasora, Faculty of Arts, MU Brno). Mezi středověkem a novověkem: Městská
společnost středovýchodní Evropy, 1500-1650 (Komparativní analýza) (GA404/05/0072, 01/200512/2006, Jaroslav Miller, Palacký University, Olomouc).
34
Maďarsko a Versailleský mírový sytém (GA409/99/0224, 01/1999-12/2001, Eva Irmanová, Historical
Institute, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Dějiny českého Slezska 1740-1989 (GA409/99/1375,
01/1999-12/2001, Dan Gawrecki, Silesian University in Opava). Proměny regionu a města Kladska v
dějinách střední Evropy. Mapy, plány, rekonstrukce (GA404/02/0489, 01/2002-12/2004, Ondřej Felcman - Eva Semotanová, Education Faculty of the University of Hradec Králové, Historickal Institute of
the Czech Academy of Sciences in Prague). Kladsko – dějiny regionu na pomezí. Studie z hospodářských
a sociálních dějin, z historiografie a vztahu Kladska k Čechám a ke Slezsku (GA404/02/0491, 01/200212/2004, Vladimír Wolf, Education Faculty, University of Hradec Králové). Historie okupovaného
pohraničí II (GA409/02/0184, 01/2002-12/2004, Zdeněk Radvanovský - Josef Bartoš - Jaroslav Toms
- Václav Kural, Education Faculty University, Ústí nad Labem, Palacký University in Olomouc, Education Faculty of the West Bohemian University in Plzeň, Institute of International Relations, Prague).
Znovuosídlení pohraničních oblastí českých zemí po druhé světové válce (GA409/03/0943, 01/200312/2005, František Čapka, Education Faculty, MU Brno).
35
Rakouská vyslanectva do Istambulu v letech 1606-1665 (IAB9021902, 01/1999-12/2001, Petr Štěpánek,
Oriental Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Úloha církevních řádů při pobělohorské
rekatolizaci Čech (1620 polovina 18. století) (GA404/01/0202, 01/2001-12/2003, Ivana Čornejová,
Institute for the History of Charles University and Charles University Archives, CU, Prague). Politické
prostředí sudetoněmeckého katolicismu v meziválečném Československu (KJB8015305, 01/2003-12/2005,
Jaroslav Šebek, Historical Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Stát a katolická církev v
Československu v letech 1968-1989 (KJB8063302, 01/2003-12/2005, Jaroslav Cuhra, Institute for Contemporary History of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague).
36
J. Kořalka, Češi v habsburské říši a v Evropě 1815-1914: sociálněhistorické souvislosti vytváření novodobého národa a národnostní otázky v českých zemích, Prague 1996.
37
M. Hroch, V národním zájmu. Požadavky a cíle evropských národních hnutí v komparativní perspektivě,
Prague 1996 and M. Hroch, Na prahu národní existence. Touha a skutečnost, Prague 1999.
38
39
L. Klusáková (ed.), Obraz druhého v historické perspektivě. Tisk a historická beletrie při formování historického vědomí v 19. a 20. století, “AUC, Philosophica en Historica”, 1, 1995, Studia Historica XLI,
Prague 1997; K. Kubiš (ed.), Obraz druhého v historické perspektivě II. Identity a stereotypy při formování moderní společnosti, “AUC, Philosophica et Historica”, 5, 1999, Studia Historica LII, Prague
2003; L. Klusáková, (ed.), “We” and “The Others”. Modern European Societies in Search of Identity.
Studies in Comparative History, “AUC, Philosophica et Historica”, 1, 2000, Studia Historica LIII,
Prague 2004 and L. Klusáková - K. Kubiš (eds.), Meeting the Other. Studies in Comparative History,
“AUC, Philosophica et Historica”, 2, 2003, Studia Historica LVI (forthcoming).
L. Klusáková - M. Křížová - K. Kubiš - M. Řezník - D. Tinková, Namísto úvodu: “My” a “Oni” – náčrt
teoretické problematiky reflexe, in Kubiš (ed.), Obraz druhého v historické perspektivě II cit., p. 11-28.
40
126
Introduction by the editors in Klusáková - Kubiš (eds), Meeting the “Other” cit., pp. 1-13.
M. Řezník, Pomoří mezi Polskem a Pruskem. Patriotismus a identity v Královských Prusech v době dělení
Polska, Prague 2001 and most recently M. Řezník, Za naši a Vaši svobodu. Století polských povstání
(1794-1864), Prague 2006.
43
F. Šmahel, Idea národa v husitských Čechách, Prague 2000.
44
J. Malíř, K prosazování národní identity na Moravě ve druhé polovině 19. století, in Ad Vitam et Honorem. Profesoru Jaroslavu Mezníkovi přátelé a žáci k pětasedmdesátým narozeninám, Brno 2003, pp.
7-18 and P. Lozoviuk, Moravanství a podoby jeho intersubjektivních konstrukcí, “Český lid”, 91, 3, 2004,
pp. 221-234.
45
For example: K. Čapková, Kafka a otázka židovské identity v dobovém kontextu, “Kuděj”, 2, 2001, M.
Pojar - B. Soukupová - M. Zahradníková (ed.), Židovská menšina v Československu ve třicátých letech,
Prague 2004, L. Veselá-Prudková, Židé a česká společnost v zrcadle literatury, Prague 2003.
46
J. Janák - Z. Hledíková, Dějiny správy v českých zemích do roku 1945, Prague 1989 and K. Malý et al.,
Dějiny českého a československého práva do roku 1945, Prague 2003.
47
D. Janák, Vytýčení československo-polské hranice a řešení otázky hornoslezských uprchlíků v letech 19481960, “Časopis Slezského zemského muzea”, Série B, Vědy historické, 42, 2, 1993, pp. 147-168.
48
V. Razím, K tendencím v ochraně hranic českého státu 13. století, “Archeologica Historica”, 29, 2004, pp.
141-160.
49
A. Komlosyová - V. Bůžek - F. Svátek, Kultury na hranici: Jižní Čechy – Jižní Morava – Waldviertel
– Weinviertel, Vienna 1995.
50
J. Jánský, Kronika česko-bavorské hranice I.-V., Domažlice 2001-2002.
51
From the quite extensive range of this author’s published work we mention here D. Trávníček, OdraNisa: definitivní polsko-německá hranice, “Sborník České geografické společnosti”, 96, 1, 1991, pp. 4851 and Id., Z historie naší východní hranice a okolních oblastí (1918-1945), “Sborník České geografické
společnosti”, 96, 2, 1992, pp. 113-114.
52
F. Honzák et al., Evropa v proměnách staletí, Praha 1997 and J. Opatrný, Amerika v proměnách staletí,
Prague 1998.
53
F.e. J. Miller, Early Modern Burgher Migration in East-Central Europe: a Comparative Perspective,
“Austrian History Yearbook”, XXXIV, 2003; Id., Stranger in Town: Some Remarks on Jewish Urban
Communities in East-Central Europe, 1500-1700, in Klusáková - Kubiš (eds.), Meeting the “Other” cit.,
(forthcoming).
54
L. Klusáková, Cestou do Cařihradu: osmanská města v 16. století viděná křesťanskýma očima, Praha 2003;
The Road to Constantinople. The Sixteenth-Century Ottoman Towns through Christian Eyes, Prague
2002; Between reality and stereotype: town views of the Balkans, “Urban History”, 28, 3, 2001, Cambridge UP, pp. 358-377; L. Klusáková - H. Sobotková, Oriental or European Identity? in Klusáková
(ed.), “We” and “The Others” cit., pp. 131-151.
55
M. Křížová, La ciudad ideal en el desierto. Proyectos misionales de la Compania de Jesus y la Iglesia Morava
en la America colonial, Ibero-Americana Pragensia, Supplementum 12/2004, Carolinum Publishing
House 2004.
56
Historické vědomí, kulturní modely a kolektivní paměť jako faktory identity a procesů integrace sudetských
Němců (GA404/94/0995, Libuše Volbrachtová, West Bohemian University in Plzeň).
57
Evropský kulturní prostor – jednota v rozmanitosti (IAE0058702, 1997-1997, Josef Vařeka, Ethnological Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague).
58
Vietnamci v České republice (GA404/99/0303, 01/1999-12/2001, Stanislav Brouček, Ethnological
Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Židé v Libereckém kraji (RK01P03OMG015,
01/2001-12/2003, Markéta Lhotová, North Bohemian Museum in Liberec). Sídelní poměry a
41
42
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
127
populační vývoj židovského obyvatelstva Moravy od poloviny 17.století do roku 1918 (GA404/04/1039,
01/2004-12/2006, Ludmila Nesládková, Philosophical Faculty, Ostrava University).
‘Ibrahim ibn Jakub’ – mezinárodní vědecké kolokvium (GA404/93/0359, 1993-1994, Petr Charvát, Oriental Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Ibráhím ibn Jakúb at-Turtúší - Křesťanství,
judaismus a islám se setkávají ve střední Evropě, 800-1300 po Kr. (IAE9021601, 1996-1996, Petr
Charvát, Oriental Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Okruhy kultů poutních madon (GA404/00/D021, 09/2000-08/2003, Markéta Holubová, Ethnological Institute of the Czech
Academy of Sciences, Prague). Tajní nekatolíci v českých zemích v 18. století z perspektivy historického
a historicko-antropologického studia (GA404/04/0980, 01/2004-12/2006, Zdeněk Nešpor, Faculty of
Humanities, CU, Prague).
Historický atlas měst České republiky (GA404/97/0651, 01/1997-12/1999, Eva Semotanová, Historical Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Přemyslovci – budování českého státu a národa
(1QS900090502, 01/2005-12/2009, Petr Sommer, Institute of Philosophy of the Czech Academy of
Sciences, Prague).
Krajina a sídla – vývoj osídlení v kontextu krajinných zón středních Čech od mezolitu do novověku
(IAA90252, 1992-1995, Martin Kuna, Archaeological Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Regenerace památkových zón a památkových rezervací Jižní Moravy – koncepce (PK96P04OPP004, 1996-1997, Věra Kovářů-Adéla Jeřábková, State institute for protection of historical heritage in Brno). Těšínsko – monografie o tradiční lidové kultuře pohraničního regionu (RK96P01OMG008, 06/1996-12/2000, Jaroslav Štika - Věra Tomolová, Wallachian Open-Air Museum
in Rožnov pod Radhoštěm, Muzeum Těšínska, Český Těšín).
Obřady a obyčeje při narození a smrti (IAA0058603, 01/1996-12/1998, Alexandra Navrátilová, Ethnological Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Národopisný atlas Čech, Moravy a Slezska
5, 6 (IAA0058803, 01/1998-12/2001, Josef Vařeka, Ethnological Institute of the Czech Academy of
Sciences, Prague).
From the extensive bibliography of the last 15 years we pick out the following: M. Hanzlíková, Změny
v tradičním životě banátských Čechů, FF UK, Prague 1999; M. Nožinová, Život a kultura pašeráků na
Orlicku v období první republiky, FF UK, Prague 2001; J. Knitl, Identitární konstrukce Moravanství, FF
UK, Prague 2004.
Z. Uherek, Constructing the National Identity of a Czech City, in Ethnic Culture and National Rebirth,
Institute of Lithuanian History, Vilnius 1994, pp. 32-41; Z. Uherek, The Czech Minority in Sarajevo and
its Symbols, in B. Jezernik (ed.), Urban Symbolism and Rituals, Oddelek za etnologijo in kulturno antropologijo Filozofska fakulteta Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana 1999, pp. 69-79; Z. Uherek - R. Weinerová,
Romská migrace ve střední Evropě. Trendy, Etnologický ústav AV ČR, Prague 2001.
Published results: M. Tomandl, Etnická identita v zrcadle etnologického výzkumu, “Etnologické inspirace”, Prague 1997, pp. 126-134.
J. Vařeka, Kulturní hranice a národní identita, “Český lid”, 81, 3, 1994, pp. 177-183.
L. Holý, Malý český člověk a skvělý český národ: národní identita a postkomunistická transformace
společnosti, Prague 2001.
I.T. Budil, Od prvotního jazyka k rase: utváření novověké západní identity v kontextu orientální renesance, Prague 2002.
T. Siwek, Česko-polská etnická hranice, Ostrava 1996 and T. Siwek - J. Kaňok, Vědomí slezské identity
v mentální mapě, Ostrava 2000.
Akcenty a proměny tzv. české otázky 1938-1989 (GA401/96/0387, 1996-1998, Miloš Havelka Sociological Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague).
Důsledky rozdělení regionu politickou hranicí na život obyvatelstva (GA404/96/0475, 1996-1998,
Magdaléna Rychlíková, National Museum, Prague).
128
“Bürgerlich” elita průmyslového velkoměsta 1870-1910, její činnost ve spolcích a v komunální politice (na
příkladu Moravské Ostravy) (GP409/01/D121, 09/2001-08/2004, Pavel Kladiwa, Ostrava University).
Formování vzdělaných vrstev občanů v českých zemích v druhé polovině 19. a na počátku 20. století. (Vybraná moravská a slezská města) (GP409/05/P042, 01/2005-12/2007, Andrea Pokludová, Museum of
Silesia in Opava).
73
Romské obyvatelstvo ostravské aglomerace v letech 1945-1998. (Vývoj a současný stav vnitroetnických
struktur, vnitřních a vnějších vztahů) (GA409/99/0390, 01/1999-12/2001, Nina Pavelčíková, Ostrava
University).
74
České pohraničí v procesech evropské integrace (Sociální aspekty přeměny česko-německého pohraničí)
(GA403/93/1085, 1993-1995, František Zich, Sociological Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences,
Prague). Sociologický a prostorový výzkum vybraných regionů na česko-polské hranici (GA403/96/0978,
1996-1998, Jarmila Premusová, Ostrava University). Role pohraničí České republiky a význam hospodářské
a politické spolupráce se sousedními zeměmi pro integraci ČR do Evropské unie (RB 10/3/98, 02/199802/2000, Milan Jeřábek, Sociological Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Osidlování
českého pohraničí od května 1945 (IAE8028801, 01/1998-12/1998, Quido Kastner, Sociological Institute
of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Nositelé vytváření přeshraničního společenství na česko-německé
hranici (GA403/98/1420, 01/1998-12/2000, František Zich, Sociological Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Postavení pohraničí v regionálním rozvoji České republiky se zřetelem k zapojení
ČR do evropských struktur (GA205/99/1142, 01/1999-12/2001, Milan Jeřábek - Tomáš Havlíček - Stanislav Řehák - Petr Wilam - Jaroslav Dokoupil - Jiří Anděl, Sociological Institute of the Czech Academy
of Sciences, Prague, Charles University in Prague, Masaryk University in Brno, Ostrava University, West
Bohemian University in Plzeň, University in Ústí nad Labem). Proměna vztahu suverenity a identity v
procesu evropské integrace a její důsledky pro pohraničí České republiky (RB30/4/00, 06/2000-06/2001,
Václav Houžvička, Sociological Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague).
75
Mentální mapa českého Slezska. Vědomí slezské identity obyvatelstva (GA403/98/0642, 01/199812/2000, Tadeusz Siwek, Ostrava University).
76
Transformace české společnosti v optice sociální anomie a kriminality: sociologický výzkum vztahů
veřejnosti ke kriminalitě a k deviantnímu jednání (GA403/95/0189, 1995-1996, Jiří Buriánek, Faculty of Philosophy and Arts, CU Prague). Kvalita života (QOL-CZ). Validizace české verze instrumentu (GA313/95/1084, 1995-1996, Ctirad Škoda, Psychiatric centre Prague). Reprezentace zájmů
v české společnosti po roce 1989 (IAE8028603, 1996-1996, Lubomír Brokl, Sociological Institute of the
Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Teoretické a metodologické stránky srovnávání národních kultur v
hospodářské praxi (GA402/98/1227, 01/1998-12/2000, Ivan Nový, University of Economics, Prague).
Politická orientace československé populace v roce 1968 (GA407/99/0714, 01/1999-12/1999, Lubomír
Brokl, Sociological Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague).
77
We cite just a few of the most important studies from the extensive bibliography: V. Houžvička, Českoněmecké pohraničí v nových podmínkách, “Mezinárodní vztahy”, 31, 4, 1996, pp. 48-58; V. Houžvička,
Pohraniční oblasti v kontextu bilaterálních vztahů České republiky a SRN, “Mezinárodní politika”, 28, 2,
2004, pp. 21-24; V. Houžvička, Postoje obyvatel České republiky k Německu, “Mezinárodní politika”, 24,
4, 2000, pp. 26-27; V. Houžvička, Změny v pohraničí, “Sociologický časopis”, 32, 2, 1996, pp. 243-246.
78
For more details see the web pages of the Sociological Institute of the CR: http://www.soc.cas.cz/index.php3?disp=projekty&lang=&shw=52, (28.6.2005).
79
For more information on public opinion surveys in relation to attitudes to foreigners see the web pages
of the CVVM: http://www.cvvm.cz/index.php?disp=nase_spolecnost&lang=0&r=1&offset=103&
shw=100018 (28.6.2005).
80
K. Vlachová - B. Řeháková, Národ, národní identita a národní hrdost v Evropě, “Sociologický časopis”,
40, 2004, pp. 489-505.
81
I. Hlaváč, Identita jako sociální konstrukce, in http://profil.muni.cz/04_2000/hlavac_identita.html
(28.6.2005).
72
129
From the point of view of identity the important works are those focusing on defining the mental borders inside Czech society: these works consider the issue in the context of the general theme of coming
to terms with the past (Vladimíra Dvořáková, Jiří Kunc) and the question of boundaries and limits in
Czech political space, where one crucial issue is the attitude to the post-communist left (P. Barša - O.
Císař, Levice v postrevoluční době. Občanská společnost a nová sociální hnutí v radikální politické teorii 20.
století, Brno 2004).
83
České politické programy (1848-1890) (GA409/98/1413, 01/1998-12/2000, Pavel Cibulka, Historical Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Moravský katolicismus ve 20. století
(GA409/00/0417, 01/2000-12/2002, Petr Fiala - Jiří Hanuš, Faculty of Social Sciences MU Brno,
Centre for the Study of Democracy and Culture, Brno). Český politický katolicismus v letech 1848-2005
(GA409/05/2724, 01/2005-12/2007, Miloš Trapl - Petr Fiala, Phil. Fac UP Olomouc, Faculty of Social Sciences MU Brno).
84
České krajanské komunity v zahraničí (RB 11121/97, 05/1996-04/1998, Miloš Trapl, Foundation
of the Centre for Exile Studies, Olomouc). Československý exil 1948-1989 (RB 21/41/99, 06/199906/2002, Jiří Pernes, Institute for Contemporary History of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague).
Právní a faktické postavení národnostních menšin v českých zemích v letech 1948-1970 (GP407/03/P046,
01/2003-12/2005, René Petráš, Faculty of Law, CU Prague). Transformace společenských elit v procesu
modernizace. Šlechta českých zemí 1749-1948 (GA404/04/0233, 01/2004-12/2006, Luboš Velek,
Phil. Fac. CU Prague). Lidé na útěku. Židovští uprchlíci do/z českých zemí, 1933-1939 (KJB8994401,
01/2004-12/2006, Kateřina Čapková, Institute of the Terezín Initiative, o.p.s., Prague).
85
Historické souvislosti rozpadu Jugoslávie (GA404/94/0884, 1994–1996, Miroslav Tejchman, Historical
Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Činnost Stálé společné česko-polské komise humanitních věd (ME 454, 04/2001-12/2001, Eduard Maur, Phil. Fac. CU Prague). Obraz Ruska v české politice
1848-1914 (GA409/01/0878, 01/2001-12/2003, Vratislav Doubek, Charles University, Prague).
86
Reflexe sudetoněmecké otázky v názorech a postojích obyvatelstva českého pohraničí jako faktor česko – německých
vztahů (RB01080/97, 1996-1997, Václav Houžvička, Sociological Institute of the Czech Academy of
Sciences, Prague). Reflexe sudetoněmecké otázky v názorech a postojích obyvatelstva českého pohraničí jako
faktor česko-německých vztahů (RB 01/8/97, 04/1996-02/1999, Václav Houžvička, Sociological Institute
of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Politické elity a národní identita ve středoevropských zemích
(RB 22/2/99, 07/1999-07/2000, Pavel Marek, Foundation of the centre for Exile Studies, Olomouc).
Evropská bezpečnostní a obranná identita – skutečnost a perspektiva (RB 27/1/99, 08/1999-12/2000,
Radek Kohl, Institute of International Relations, Prague). Formování politických identit po roce 1989
(GA407/00/0419, 01/2000-12/2001, Radim Marada, Masaryk University in Brno).
87
Ivo Gabal, Etnické menšiny ve střední Evropě, Prague 1999.
88
L. Cabada - K. Vodička, Politický systém České republiky: historie a současnost. Prague 2003; V. Šafaříková
et al., Transformace české společnosti 1989-1995, Brno 1996. B. Říchová, Disintegration of States - Myth
of Nationalism. The Case of Czechoslovakia, in A. Clesse - A. Kortunov (eds.), The Political and Strategic
Implications of the State Crises in Central and Eastern Europe. Luxembourg 1993, pp. 288-295.
89
This is an area of interest that has been mainly reflected in live debate and discussion but it has also
found its specific platforms for publication. Probably the most prominent, although in many respects
the most controversial, is the journal Střední Evropa [Central Europe].
90
These are mostly smaller studies by M. Romanov or B. Hnízdo, and some articles by political scientists
at the West Bohemian University in Plzeň and the Masaryk University in Brno. The large number of
these articles means that a even a brief survey cannot be given here.
91
Gabal et al., Etnické menšiny cit.
92
K. Müller, Češi a občanská společnost. Pojem, problémy, východiska, Prague 2002; J. Alan, Dialog o
občanské společnosti, Prague 1995; F. Šamalík, O podstatě a záludnostech politiky, Prague 1992; J. Kunc et
al., Demokracie a ústavnost, Prague 1999 (2nd ed.).
82
130
J. Malečková, Úrodná půda: Žena ve službách národa [Fertile soil: Women serve the nation], Prague:
ISV 2002, p. 242; Id., Nationalizing women and engendering the nation: The Czech national movement
in I. Blom - K. Hagemann - C. Hall, (eds.), Gendered nations: Nationalisms and gender order in the long
nineteenth century, Oxford-New York 2000, pp. 293-310; idem, L’Éclosion du Féminisme en Europe
Centrale et de l’Est: Une Grande Diversité de Contextes Nationaux. Présentation, in Les Temps Modernes
Vol. 52, 1997, No. 593, pp. 144-147; Id., Women in Perceptions of Uneven Development in M. Hroch - L.
Klusáková (eds.), Criteria and Indicators of Backwardness. Essays on Uneven Development in European
History, Prague 1996, pp. 143-156; J. Malečková, Gender Nation and Scholarship: Reflections on Gender.
Women’s Studies in the Czech Republic, in M. Maynard - J. Purvis (eds.), New Frontiers in Women´s Studies: Knowledge, Identity and Nationalism, Bristol PA 1996, pp. 96-112.
94
P. Barša, Politická teorie multikulturalismu, Brno 1999; P. Barša - M. Strmiska, Národní stát a etnický
konflikt. Politologická perspektiva, Brno 1999; P. Barša, Západ a islamismus. Střet civilizací, nebo dialog
kultur?, Brno 2001.
95
M. Strmiska has explored the question of regions and nationally (ethnically) defined communities in
the countries of Western Europe in general terms, with a focus on questions of the violent or non-violent pursuit of their interests within the wider nation states. Among his publications we should mention at least the following: M. Strmiska, Regionální strany a stranické systémy. Španělsko, Itálie, Velká
Británie a Severní Irsko, Brno 1998; M. Strmiska, Smrtonosné vlastenectví. Etnicko-politický terorismus
v Baskicku a Quebeku, Brno 2001.
96
Blanka Říchová is partly concerned with the more general problem of identities in the context of
decentralising trends in the countries of Western Europe (e.g. V. Fiala - B. Říchová (eds.), Úloha
politických aktérů v procesu decentralizace, Olomouc- Prague 2002. A collection of papers from a
conference held on the 9th of December 2002 at the Law Faculty of the Palacký University in Olomouc. She has also devoted special attention to the specific cases of the Scottish and Welsh national
movements and the political presentation of the demands of these communities in the United Kingdom. Published studies: B. Říchová, Skotsko, Wales a Evropská unie před rokem 1999, in V. Kotábová
- I. Prázová - O. Schneider (eds.), Rozvoj české společnosti v Evropské unii EU, 2nd Vol.: Ekonomie,
Politologie, Prague 2004, pp. 243-265; B. Říchová, Proměny velšského nacionalismu, “Politologická
revue”, 8, 1, 2002, pp. 120-140; B. Říchová, Between Britishness and Welshness, in Klusáková - Kubiš
(eds.), Meeting the Other, cit., B. Říchová, Labour Party a koncept Velšského národního shromáždění
(1945-1999), “Politologická revue”, 6, 1, 2000, pp. 6-24; B. Říchová, Skotsko na cestě k autonomii,
“Politologická revue”, 4, 2, 1998, pp. 54-75.
97
Československý politický a kulturní exil 1948-1989 (GA409/99/0874, 01/1999-12/2001, Vilém Prečan
- Miloš Kouřil - Oldřich Tůma, Czechosolvak Documentation Centre Dobřichovice, Palacký University in Olomouc, Institute for Contemporary History of the Czech Academy of Sciences in Prague).
Češi v cizině – emigrace a návrat do vlasti (populárně vědecká publikace) (LP01053, 03/2001-12/2002,
Jaroslav Vaculík, Education Faculty, Marsaryk University, Brno). Československý exil 1948-1989: osobnosti; organizace; instituce (GA409/03/0116, 01/2003-12/2005, Vilém Prečan, Czechoslovak Documentation Centre Dobřichovice). Československo-francouzské vztahy v diplomatických jednáních 19401945 (GA409/02/0795, 01/2002-12/2003, Jan Němeček, Historical Institute of the Czech Academy
of Sciences, Prague).
98
“Fontes Cartographici Bohemiae, Moraviae atque Silesiae” (IAA9015909, 01/1999-12/2002, Eva Semotanová, Historical Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Vyobrazení měst a jiných
lokalit v tiscích 16.-18. st. (se vztahem k území České republiky) (IAA9083901, 01/1999-12/2001,
Anežka Baďurová, Library of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Historický atlas měst České
republiky (GA404/00/1706, 01/2000-12/2002, Eva Semotanová, Historical Institute of the Czech
Academy of Sciences, Prague). Obraz české války a mýtus Fridricha Falckého v raně stuartovské Anglii
(GA404/03/1043, 01/2003-12/2004, Jaroslav Miller, Faculty of Law, Palacký University, Olomouc).
Historický atlas měst České republiky II (GA404/03/1081, 01/2003-12/2005, Eva Semotanová, Historical Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Média a struktury konfesijní identity v českých
93
131
zemích pozdního středověku a raného novověku (1380-1620) (GA408/05/0574, 01/2005-12/2007,
Michal Šroněk - Milena Bartlová, Institute of Art History at the Czech Academy of Sciences Prague,
Faculty of Arts, MU Brno).
99
Nakladatelé v českých kulturních dějinách 19. a 20. století (IAA0056702, 01/1997-12/2000, Aleš Zach,
Institute for Czech Literature of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Krásná próza v českých
časopisech národního obrození 1786-1830 (IAA0056801, 01/1998-12/2000, Lenka Kusáková, Institute for Czech Literature of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Modernizace narace a historického
myšlení v české, polské a německé literatuře na přelomu 19. a 20. století (GA409/02/1159, 01/200212/2004, Lenka Řezníková, Philosophy Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Západní
Čechy – kulturně historický vývoj v srdci Evropy (GA404/02/1368, 01/2002-12/2004, Jan Kumpera,
West Bohemian University in Plzeň). Protičeskoslovenská propaganda třetí říše 1933-1938 a propaganda
Sudetoněmecké strany (GA409/03/1276, 01/2003-12/2005, Pavel Zeman, National Film Archives,
Prague).
100
Vladislavské zřízení a počátky ústavního zřízení v českých zemích, 1500-1619 (GA404/00/1721,
01/2000-12/2001, Karel Malý, Charles University in Prague). Vývoj českého a moravského zemského
procesního práva ve světle právních úprav (kodifikací) první poloviny 17. století (GA404/02/1334,
01/2002-12/2003, Marta Kadlecová, Masaryk University in Brno ). Vývoj české ústavnosti v letech 16271918 (GA407/03/0527, 01/2003-12/2005, Karel Malý, Charles University in Prague).
101
Dějiny zdanění (GA402/99/0894,01/1999-12/2001, Jiří Marek - Květa Kubátová - Jan Široký - Václav Vybíhal, UJEP Ústí nad Labem, University of Economics, Prague, Mining and Technical University in Ostrava, Mendel Agricultural and Forestry University in Brno). Peněžní oběh ve střední Evropě
na počátku raného novověku (Pokusy o zavedení společné měny jako projev politické kultury 16. .století)
(GA404/03/1057, 01/2003 - 12/2005, Petr Vorel, Faculty of Humanities, Pardubice University).
102
Ekonomické, sociální a geografické determinanty procesu formování pracovních trhů v pohraničních regionech České republiky (GA402/93/0728, 1993-1995, Milan Viturka - René Wokoun, University
of Economics in Prague). Hodnocení vlivů na prostředí ve městech (IAA8033501, 1995-1996, Jaroslav Macháček, Institute of Art History of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Analýza ekonomické a sociální úrovně regionů v České republice (GA402/96/1280, 1996-1998, René Wokoun,
University of Economics in Prague). Modelování v regionální ekonomii na příkladu českého příhraničí
(GA402/96/0707, 1996-1998, Jiří Beck, West Bohemian University in Plzeň). Hlavní problémy ekonomických vztahů České republiky k Evropské unii a cesty k jejich řešení (GA402/00/0431, 01/200012/2002, Václav Kubišta, University of Economics, Prague). Bariéra pro vstup do podnikání a sebeprosazení žen v ČR a srovnání s EU (GA402/00/0501, 01/2000-12/2001, Anna Putnová - Martina
Rašticová, Technical University in Brno, Masaryk University in Brno).
103
Identita z naratologického hlediska (IA809103, 1993-1994, Jiří Pechar, Philosophical Institute of the
Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Hranice metafyziky a pojmového myšlení (GA401/95/0548,
1995-1997, Zdeněk Kratochvíl - Miroslav Petříček, Natural Sciences Faculty and Faculty of Philosophy and Arts, Charles University, Prague). Akcenty a posuny české otázky 1938 - 1989. Edice reprezentativních textů (GA401/00/0521, 01/2000-12/2000, Miloš Havelka, Institute of Sociology of the Czech
Academy of Sciences, Prague). Teologický pohled na minulost a současnost uniatů (GA401/00/D085,
/2000-08/2003, Walerian Bugel, Palacký University, Olomouc).
104
Interpretace a hledání kulturní identity v evropské a americké literatuře (IA95652, 1992-1994, V. Svatoň
- Helena Lorenzová, Faculty of Philosophy and Arts, CU Prague, Institute of Art History of the Czech
Academy of Sciences, Prague). Historie ve škole – její možnosti při rozvíjení poznání, občanského vědomí,
morálky a tvořivosti žáků a studentů a její potřeby (RS024294, 1992-1994, Helena Mandelová, History
Club, Prague). Dobro a zlo v myslích českých adolescentů (GA406/98/0892, 01/1998-12/2000, Mojmír
Tyrlík, MU Brno). Vztah mezi obecnými a specifickými charakteristikami osobnosti: Pětifaktorový model
osobnosti, osobnostní přístup k agresi, styly identity (GA406/96/1543, 1996-1998, Ivo Čermák - Petr
Macek, Institute of Psychology of the Czech Academy of Sciences Brno, MU Brno). Agrese, identita,
osobnost: výzkumné výsledky (GA406/99/1155, 01/1999-12/2000, Ivo Čermák - Petr Macek, Institute
132
of Psychology of the Czech Academy of Sciences Brno, MU Brno). Demokratické občanství: Psychologické dimenze a kros-kulturální srovnání (GA406/00/0587, 01/2000-12/2002, Martina Klicperová,
Institute of Psychology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno).
Český odborný diskurz v multikulturním kontextu (Normy odborné komunikace v různých jazykových a
kulturních společenstvích a jejich osvojování) (GA405/95/0712, 1995-1997, Světla Čmejrková, Institute
for the Czech Language at the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague). Utváření obrazu etnických menšin
v mediální a každodenní komunikaci (GA405/98/0390, 01/1998-12/2000, Jiří Nekvapil, Charles University in Prague).
105
“Geografie. Sborník české geografické společnosti”, 105, 1, 2000.
106
S. Řehák, Kontakty se Slovenskem na moravsko-slovenském pomezí: role vzdálenosti hranic, “Sborník
prací Pedagogické fakulty Masarykovy univerzity”, Geografie X, 10/1998, Brno 1998, pp. 122-127.
107
M. Pokorný, Národní identita jako filosoficko-historický fenomén v české literatuře 19. století: národní literatura v meziliterárních souvislostech, “Estetika” 38, 2, 4, 2002, pp. 126-141.
108
O. Dann - M. Hroch - J. Koll (eds.), Patriotismus und Nationsbildung am Ende des heiligen römischen
Reiches, Köln am Rhein 2003; K. Eder - W. Spohn (eds.), Collective Memory and European Identity. The
Effects of Integration and Enlargement, Ashgate 2005; A. Ichijo - W. Spohn (eds.), Entangled identities:
Nations and Europe, Ashgate 2005; L. Eriksonas - L. Müller (eds.), Statehood before and beyond ethnicity. Minor states in Northern and Eastern Europe 1600-2000, Brussels 2005.
109
110
As for projects, it was especially EURONAT project. Representations of Europe and the Nation in
Current and Prospective Member-States: Media, Elites and Civil Society. E.C. Fifth Framework Programme. See the Czech chapters in the reports: K. Kubiš - V. Kubišová - K. Růžičková - M. Voříšek,
Czech Republic: Nation Formation, Czech Republic and Europe. EURONAT project. Representations
of Europe and the Nation in Current and Prospective Member-States: Media, Elites and Civil Society.
E.C. Fifth Framework Programme. State of the Art and Historical Report. Robert Schuman Centre for
Advanced Studies, European University Institute. Florence, June 2002; and K. Kubiš - V. Kubišová K- Růžičková - M. Voříšek, Representations of Nation, the EU and Europe in the Czech Media and Political Discourse. EURONAT project. Representations of Europe and the Nation in Current and Prospective
Member-States: Media, Elites and Civil Society. E.C. Fifth Framework Programme. Project Report. Robert
Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, European University Institute. Florence, November 2002.
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