sborník „jak úspěšně podnikat v příhraničních regionech

Transkript

EVROPSKÝ POLYTECHNICKÝ INSTITUT, s.r.o. KUNOVICE
1. SOUKROMÁ VYSOKÁ ŠKOLA NA MORAVĚ
SBORNÍK
„JAK ÚSPĚŠNĚ PODNIKAT V PŘÍHRANIČNÍCH
REGIONECH JIHOVÝCHODNÍ MORAVY“
VI. MEZINÁRODNÍ KONFERENCE 2011
20. května 2011, Luhačovice, Česká republika
Kolektiv autorů
VI. MEZINÁRODNÍ KONFERENCE
„JAK ÚSPĚŠNĚ PODNIKAT V PŘÍHRANIČNÍCH REGIONECH JIHOVÝCHODNÍ
MORAVY“
Vydavatel, nositel autorských práv, vyrobil:
(C) Evropský polytechnický institut, s.r.o., 2011
Publikace neprošla jazykovou úpravou.
Za obsahovou správnost odpovídají autoři
ISBN 978-80-7314-238-4
“JAK ÚSPĚŠNĚ PODNIKAT V PŘÍHRANIČNÍCH REGIONECH
JIHOVÝCHODNÍ MORAVY”
VI. MEZINÁRODNÍ KONFERENCE 2011
Organizován
EVROPSKÝM POLYTECHNICKÝM INSTITUTEM, s.r.o. KUNOVICE
ve spolupráci s
Plechanovou ruskou ekonomickou akademii v Moskvě,
Moskevskou podnikatelskou akademií, Moskva,
Institutem ekonomiky v Podolsku,
College of Economy, Tourism and Social Sciences v Kielcích,
Mykolas Romerius University ve Vilniu,
Vilnius University ve Vilniu,
Akadémiou policajného zboru v Bratislave,
Ekonomickou univerzitou v Bratislave,
Vysokou školou ekonómie a manažmentu v Bratislave,
Vysokou školou v Sládkovičove,
Univerzitou Matěja Bela v Banskej Bystrici,
Žilinskou univerzitou, Fakultou riadenia a informatiky v Žiline
Vysokým učením technickým v Brně
Předseda programového výboru konference:
Ing. Oldřich Kratochvíl, h. prof., Ph.D., CSc., Dr.h.c., MBA
PROGRAMOVÝ VÝBOR KONFERENCE
Předseda: h. prof. Ing. Oldřich Kratochvíl, Ph.D., Dr.h.c., MBA – rektor EPI, s.r.o., ČR
MVDr. Stanislav Mišák - hejtman Zlínského kraje, ČR
Libor Lukáš - statutární zástupce hejtmana Zlínského kraje, ČR
Mgr, Josef Slovák - radní Zlínského kraje
Prof. Ing. Karel Rais, CSc., MBA – rektor Vysokého učení technického v Brně, ČR
Prof. Dr. Viktor I. Grišin, Dr.Sc. – rektor REA Moskva, RU
Dr. Jan Telus – rektor College of Economy, Tourism and Social Sciences in Kielce, Kielce,
PL
Prof. Dr. Irena Mačerinskiené - Mykolas Romeris University ve Vilniu, Litva
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Jogaila Mačerinskas - Vilnius University ve Vilniu, Litva
plk. prof. Ing. Václav Krajník, CSc. - rektor Akadémie policajného zboru Bratislava, SK
Prof. Ing. Karol Polák, Dr.Sc., Dr.h.c. - rektor VŠ Sládkovičovo, SK
Prof. Ing. Tatiana Čorejová, Ph.D. - rektorka Žilinskej Univerzity, SK
Prof. PhDr. Beata Kosová, CSc. - rektorka Univerzity Mateja Bela v Banskej Bystrici, SK
Prof. Ing. Viera Cibáková, CSc. – rektorka VŠ ekonomie a manažmentu verejnej správy v
Bratislave, SK
Prof. Ruslan I. Khasbulatov, Dr.Sc. - Ruská Ekonomická Akademie, Moskva, RU
Prof. Alan Guinn, Rushmore University, USA
Prof. Ing. Petr Dostál, CSc. - VUT Brno, ČR
Prof. Dr. Herbert Strunz - děkan Westsächsische Hochschule Zwickau, DE
Prof. Vladimír V. Tabolin - Moskevská podnikatelská akademie, RU
Doc. Ing. Miroslav Mečár, CSc. – prorektor pro zahraniční vztahy, EPI, s.r.o.
Doc. Ing. Jozef Strišš, CSc. - prorektor pro pedagogickou činnost EPI, s.r.o. Kunovice
h. doc. Mgr. Iveta Hashesh, Ph.D., MBA – prorektorka EPI, s.r.o. Kunovice, ČR
Ing. Jozef Habánik, Ph.D., h.doc. – akademický pracovník EPI, s.r.o., Kunovice, ČR
Ing. Marek Šimčák, Ph.D. – akademický pracovník EPI, s.r.o., Kunovice, ČR
Ing. Jindřich Petrucha, Ph.D. – akademický pracovník EPI, s.r.o., Kunovice, ČR
OPONENTNÍ RADA
Prof. Ing. Jaroslav Ďaďo, Ph.D., Univerzita Mateja Bela v Banské Bystrici, SR
Prof. JUDr. Jozef Králik, CSc., Akadémia policajného zboru Bratislava, SR
Prof. PhDr. Karel Lacina, DrSc., Univerzita Pardubice, ČR
Sekce 1: Rozvoj lidských zdrojů v regionech
Moderátor: prof. PhDr. Karel Lacina, DrSc.
Sekce 2: Podpora přeshraniční spolupráce a inovační tendence v regionech
Moderátor: Ing. Jaroslav Kavka
OBSAH
THE MAIN PROBLEMS OF THE CURRENT REFORM PROCESS OF THE ECONOMY
IN THE CR ......................................................................................................................................................... 11 Oldřich Kratochvíl............................................................................................................................................ 11 SEKCE 1 .............................................................................................................................................................. 17 GLOBALIZATION AND FINANCIAL KRISIS ............................................................................................. 19 Dušan Baran ..................................................................................................................................................... 19 EVALUATION OF TEACHING WITH SELF-REFLECTION .................................................................... 25 Zdeněk Botek, Marta Kratochvílová ................................................................................................................ 25 MICROREGION KRNOVSKO AND THE CZECH - POLISH COOPERATION IN TOURISM,
BUSINESS AND DEVELOPMENT.................................................................................................................. 29 Milan Březina1, Kamil Třos2 ............................................................................................................................ 29 POSITION AND ROLE OF A UNIVERSITY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF REGIONAL HUMAN
RESOURCES (IN THE CONTEXT OF CURRENT TRENDS IN TERTIARY EDUCATION) ............... 37 Vladimír Čechák .............................................................................................................................................. 37 THE INFLUENCE OF POSITIVE IMAGE AND FIRM COMMUNITY ON STABILIZATION AND
RECRUITING THE BEST EMPLOYEES ...................................................................................................... 43 Ivan Dlugoš ...................................................................................................................................................... 43 THE SOLUTION OF DECISION MAKING PROBLEMS IN MATLAB .................................................... 49 Petr Dostál1, Oldřich Kratochvíl2 ..................................................................................................................... 49 THE UNITAS PROGRAMME - THE REFORM OF TAX AND CUSTOMS ADMINISTRATION
REFORM, WITH A VIEW TO UNIFYING THE COLLECTION OF TAXES, CUSTOMS DUTIES AND
INSURANCE CONTRIBUTIONS .................................................................................................................... 53 Juraj Dubovec1, Vladimíra Hlaváčková2 .......................................................................................................... 53 INNOVATION IN REGIONAL ECONOMICS AND POLITICS ................................................................. 59 Jaroslav Kavka, Jozef Habánik ........................................................................................................................ 59 BASIC PRINCIPLES AND SPECIFICS OF TRADING COMMODITIES ................................................ 63 Ondřej Šabata ................................................................................................................................................... 63 POSSIBILITIES OF DRAWING FINANCIAL RESOURCES FROM THE EU IN SOUTH AND
CENTRAL MORAVIA ...................................................................................................................................... 67 Tibor Hlačina, Jaroslav Kavka, Stanislav Vrba ................................................................................................ 67 COMPUTER PROCESSING OF PORTFOLIOS AND INVESTMENT ON PORTFOLIOS .................... 75 Dušan Marček1,2, Marek Horváth3, Lukáš Falát1 .............................................................................................. 75 THE IMPACT OF FINANCIAL SITUATION ON COMPANY INVESTMENTS ..................................... 83 Miloš Majerník, Miroslava Lovichová ............................................................................................................. 83 MATHEMATICAL ELEMENTS IN ECONOMIC AND MATHEMATICAL APPLICATIONS ............ 89 Daniela Hricišáková, Dagmar Vacková, Jitka Jablonická, Iva Jevčáková ....................................................... 89 DEVELOPMENT OF PRIVATE LAW IN CZECH REPUBLIC - UPCOMING CHANGES TO CIVIL
LAWBOOK ......................................................................................................................................................... 95 František Hurbiš, Hanna Banetskaya ............................................................................................................... 95 INNOVATIVE FORMS OF EDUCATION AT UNIVERSITIES TO DEVELOP KNOWLEDGE
STUDENT............................................................................................................................................................ 99 Zuzana Chodasová1 Anna Jacková2 ................................................................................................................ 99 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF ECONOMIC PHENOMENA AND PROCESSES AN
IMPORTANT TOOL FOR IMPROVING IN BUSINESS MANAGEMENT ............................................ 103 Iva Jevčaková, Miroslava Lovichová ............................................................................................................. 103 ANALYSIS OF THE ALTERNATIVE RISK TRANSFER TOOLS ........................................................... 107 Zuzana Kozubíková........................................................................................................................................ 107 COMMON PROBLEMS OF THE CENTRAL EUROPEAN ECONOMIES DEVELOPMENT ............ 111 Zuzana Kozubíková........................................................................................................................................ 111 TAX POLICY OF THE CR AND ITS IMPACT ON BUSINESS ................................................................ 115 Yvona Legierska ............................................................................................................................................ 115 IMPERATOR COMPANY BUSINESS ACTIVITIES AND INNOVATION TENDENCIES .................. 123 Miloš Majerník ............................................................................................................................................... 123 THE IMPACT OF FINANCIAL SITUATION ON COMPANY INVESTMENTS ................................... 129 Miloš Majerník, Miroslava Lovichová ........................................................................................................... 129 THEORETICAL ISSUES OF KEY INNOVATION AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP COMPETENCE
DEVELOPMENT IDENTIFICATION IN CZECH POPULATION .......................................................... 135 Antonín Malach1, Josef Malach2 .................................................................................................................... 135 MEASUREMENT OF UNCERTAINTY IN MANAGERIAL DECISION MAKING .............................. 141 Milan Marček ................................................................................................................................................. 141 DEVELOPMENT OF PRIVATE RIGHTS IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC - FORTHCOMING
CHANGES TO THE COMMERCIAL CODE .............................................................................................. 147 František Hurbiš, Alena Hanzová................................................................................................................... 147 VÝVOJ PRÁVNÍHO PROSTŘEDÍ PRO PODNIKÁNÍ V ZAHRANIČNÍM OBCHODU (…A NEJEN V
PŘÍHRANIČNÍCH OBLASTECH) ................................................................................................................ 149 Pavel Matoušek .............................................................................................................................................. 149 SPA TREATMENT AN IMPORTANT ELEMENT OF TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN MORAVIAN
SILESIAN REGION ......................................................................................................................................... 153 Monika Motyková .......................................................................................................................................... 153 THE TESTING OF STATISTICAL HYPOTHESES AN IMPORTANT MEANS OF STATISTICAL
INDUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................... 161 Miroslav Novotný, Iva Jevčaková .................................................................................................................. 161 TRADE BALANCE OF THE CZECH REPUBLIC AND ITS IMPACT ON THE COUNTRY’S
ECONOMY ....................................................................................................................................................... 167 Ladislav Obdržálek, Vladimíra Hlaváčková, Radek Habarta ......................................................................... 167 INSURANCE MARKET DEVELOPMENT IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC AFTER 1989 ....................... 173 Ladislav Obdržálek, Jaroslav Kavka .............................................................................................................. 173 GOLD RESERVES OF CENTRAL BANKS AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT .......................................... 177 Ladislav Obdržálek, Jaroslav Kavka .............................................................................................................. 177 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN THE TEACHING OF THE FOREIGN TRADE - SELF CONFIDENCE
IN THE BUSINESS .......................................................................................................................................... 181 Jan Prachař ..................................................................................................................................................... 181 CURRENT TREND OF INDIRECT TAXES IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC AND IN SLOVAKIA ........ 185 Ondřej Šabata ................................................................................................................................................. 185 IMPLEMENTATION OF STRUCTURAL FUNDS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF CORPORATE
IDENTITY IN CROSS-BORDER COOPERATION AS FACTOR OF IMPROVING
COMPETITIVENESS ...................................................................................................................................... 189 Lenka Šimorová ............................................................................................................................................. 189 CURRENT CONDITIONS FOR GRANTING CREDIT TO SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZED
ENTERPRISES (SME)..................................................................................................................................... 197 Staníková Zuzana, Kozubíková Zuzana ......................................................................................................... 197 MARKETING PLANNING IN REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT ................................................................. 201 Jozef Strišš, Jaroslav Kavka ........................................................................................................................... 201 COMPARISON OF ACCOUNTANCY IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC AND IN SLOVAKIA AND
INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARDS..................................................................................... 207 Ondřej Šabata, Jaroslav Ďaďo ........................................................................................................................ 207 NEW VIEWS ON MARKETING MIX .......................................................................................................... 215 Jozef Strišš1, Anna Závodská2 ........................................................................................................................ 215 PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS AND THEIR POSSIBLE USE IN CROSS-BORDER
COOPERATION .............................................................................................................................................. 219 Alexander Turan ............................................................................................................................................. 219 JMENNÝ REJSTŘÍK....................................................................................................................................... 225 THE MAIN PROBLEMS OF THE CURRENT REFORM PROCESS OF THE
ECONOMY IN THE CR
Oldřich Kratochvíl
European Polytechnic Institute, Ltd.
Abstract: Nowadays, the Czech Republic has been facing the series of unavoidable reform
processes the aim of which is to regenerate the public finances and to increase the
competitiveness of the Czech Republic. The content and the schedule of the reform are under
significant discussion of the whole society to which the academic village must be involved. The
serious problem is the “load capacity” of the suggested reforms, their impact on the social
conditions of the citizens. The essential problem is both the ethical impact of the reform onto
the population and politicians’ responsibility and that of the elite of the nation for the further
destiny of this country.
Key words: Debt crisis, Greece, Italy, Germany, Ireland, the pact for competitiveness, deficit,
pension reform, the reform of health system, tax reform, VAT, the ethics of reforms , social
load capacity for the reform, life philosophy, lobbyist interests.
Dear Colleagues,
We are meeting at the 6th International conference “How succeed in Business at Cross border Regions of
Southeast Moravia” in Luhačovice and we follow the two international conferences “University as a
Facilitator of Society and Regional Development” and “ICSC - International Conference on Soft Computing
Applied in Computer and Economic Environments” of January 2011 and partly as well the international
students conference “The Forecast of our Civilization Development in 21st century” in Kroměříž. I am
pleased to inform you that the auspices to the conference has been accepted by Mr. RNDr. Petr Nečas, the
prime minister. I heartily welcome rectors, vice rectors, deans, professors, associate professors, managing
directors of companies, politicians from central, district and local levels, managing directors and specialists
from companies and public authorities and students.
We are meeting in the middle of the rapid development when our civilization is shaken by global crisis,
when the countries of the Euro Atlantic area have gone through mortgage, financial and at the end the debt
crisis during the last ten years. We are threatened by the inability of governments to finance the national
budgets without the foreign financial support and reasonable regulation both in Greece and high probability
counts for Ireland, Italy, Spain which threatens the whole European Union and in the case it is not solved
the economy of Germany, which is our customer for 80% of foreign trade, can be influenced.
Graph no. 1. The government debt of threatened countries in the Euro zone. (Greece, Ireland, Portugal)
Source: Eurostat
„JAK ÚSPĚŠNĚ PODNIKAT V PŘÍHRANIČNÍCH REGIONECH JIHOVÝCHODNÍ MORAVY“
VI. MEZINÁRODNÍ KONFERENCE 2011, EPI Kunovice, Česká republika, 20. květen, 2011
11
Germany and EU are the main customer for foreign trade of China and that is the reason why those areas
could be influenced. The important topic of our reality is the issue of reforms. Nobody doubts their need.
The reason is that Europe does not get older only but also it has been losing the competitiveness. The Euro
zone has supported the mutual trade ( it helped the nearest environment) but it has not brought the expected
better allocation of capital. The capital started flowing into the economies that offered a better interest yield
but the higher risk was the cost. The creditors (mostly banks of the “core” countries in Euro zone) ignored
the risk (they expected that the more risky economies will be supported) and they realized it in the crisis and
involved it into the expectation. The Euro zone encouraged the overheating of some peripheral economies
and the slower growth of the “core” economies.
The often ignored reality: on account of the living standard in Germany the capital flew into the risky state
and private debt in Ireland and the south wing of the Euro zone. Germany has subscribed its current
economical success. Countries like Greece or Portugal have got a low competitiveness (e.g. slow growth,
high primary deficit, deficit in foreign trade and current account. The required structural reforms are not
satisfactory for solution of problems in the Euro zone which has to change its institutional frame.
The following graph of debts and deficit of EU countries in 2010 confirms and demonstrate the
unfavourable situation in the area.
Graph no. 2.: Debts and deficit of EU countries in 2010
Source: Eurostat
Graph no. 3 demonstrates the negative movement in the relation of debts and deficits in EU in 2009
90
2010
85
Dluh/HDP v %
80
2009
75
2008
2006
70
2007
65
60
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
Deficit/HDP v %
Graph no 3.: Debts and deficits in EU in 2010
Source: Eurostat
In order to increase the competitiveness of EU countries Germany and France suggested 6 points which
strive for the price competitiveness, stability of the public finance and determination of the lowest limit of
GDP for the investment support into research, education and infrastructure development to be evaluated.
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This so called Pact for competitiveness suggests:

Leave the system of regular wage valorisation

Mutual recognition of university degree and professional qualification which will lead to
improvement of labour forces mobility in Europe

Gradual harmonisation of corporate tax

Adjustment of the pension systems to the demographic development ( higher age for retirement)

The accountability of the member states to take the structural deficit as illegal

Creation of the system for the national crisis management for banks.
The Czech Republic is a part of the society and that is why we were significantly influenced by the Pact for
competitiveness. The Czech Republic starts the period for system reform changes. The following are among
the most important:

Pensions reform

Welfare system reform

Tax reform
There is no doubt about the need for reform due to the state finance. The reforms have been taking place in
all countries of EU. We have to ask the following questions:

Will the suggested reforms bring the improvement of the current situation?

Is the cost of reforms distributed evenly on the whole society?

Will the reforms survive the election period of this government?
The answer to these questions should be given by politicians of governing parties and opposition as well as
in the future only parameters might change not the system.
The reforms brought a lot of ethics questions. The significant one is the question of increased VAT impact
on health care. The government income from VAT is demonstrated by the table below. (VAT creates 20%
of the total income of the government.
Graph no. 4.: Total collection of VAT
Source: Ministry of Finance
One third of the increased VAT will be paid by insurance companies and two thirds will be paid by
hospitals which have been underfinanced for long time. We can expect the partnership of patients will
increase from 17% to 18%.
Another ethics problem in health care is over standard paid care for patients. The possibility for richer
patients to choose the top quality doctor implies the question if the poor patients will have a worse service.
Even the specialists in the health care argue about the basic principle according which the more experienced
doctor should deal with complicated issues without any evaluation of the richness of the patient.
The health care has been underfinanced for long time as it is shown on the graph no. 5.
13
Graph no. 5.: Income and spending of Insurance companies in the CR
Its development is realized on the account of the doctors´ salary. It is realistic that the growth of doctors
payment is to be ensured.
Graph no. 6.: Average salary of doctors in hospitals
Source : Ministry of Finance
What will happen if the principles of the appeal “Thank you, we are leaving” (Remonstrance against the
situation in the Czech health care. At that time 3 837 doctors handed in the notice leaving on 1st March
2011) is accepted by other unions, professions e.g. fire brigade?
It is clear that the substance of the current crises is the ethics and moral crisis and absence of meaningful
philosophy. The political elite and lawyers elevated the lobbyist interests of small groups over the general
needs of economical development of the country. The result is the huge corruption solved by nobody
(privatization of Mostecká uhelná, Škoda Plzeň, airplanes Gripen, Army vehicles Pandur and hundreds of
small cases). Besides this apparent corruption we have huge sector of grey corruption economy regarding
grants and subsidies for activities, which hardly support the society development. The sources are allocated
14
by narrow specialists who direct them for their mutually benefit and they are not interested in those who had
to create the value. This development passed the neither the educational system nor health care.
If we add the problem of low efficiency of our economy and low productivity not only in factories but also
in educational sector and health care we have the things to think about during the conference.
I wish you dear colleagues,
That we succeed mutually in seeking the answers for questions I mentioned and for those that will be
brought by life. I would like you to prepare serious and positive society vision. I wish you that results of
your work significantly influence the life of people in our regions.
AUTHOR
Ing. Oldřich Kratochvíl, h. prof., Ph.D., CSc., Dr.h.c., MBA
Rector
European Polytechnic institute, Ltd.
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
Czech Republic
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SEKCE 1
17
18
GLOBALIZATION AND FINANCIAL KRISIS
Dušan Baran
European Politechnical Institute Ltd., 1st Private University in Moravia
Abstract: Every small variance from the economic trend, positive or negative, will cause chain
reaction on financial markets and then in the world economy, in present information and
economically interconnected world. Because client lends money for investment, for example
house, from bank institution, which depends on resources from other creditors through
financial markets, we can see that not even state budgets, that must help commercial
institutions to prevent bankruptcy, which would lead to total economic doom, are spared from
the problems.
Key words: money system, globalization, banking, development, stock exchanges, debt,
interest, financial markets, liquidity.
1 HISTORY OF MONEY
The exact origin of money is unknown. Keynes once wrote: „Money, as the other elements of civilizations,
are covered in mist when the glaciers were melting and they may originate in the ancient time periods of
human history between the glacial periods, when there was great weather and free mind to think about the
new ideals - on the Hesperides isle or in Atlantis or Eden of Central Asia“. [1, p. 42] At the beginning of
mankind it was unthinkable for one man to want anything from another person, because he could get or
produce anything he needed. As the society started to develop, first "business relations" between people and
whole families started to appear, mostly in barter form. It means if man made for example a spear, he could
trade it for clothes. When this does not seem so important, this specialization on some, we can say goods,
the speed of mankind development increased greatly. There was only one step to real money remaining.
This time period started at about the start of iron age when there was necessity of something we call money
today, because if I am making fur coats, I would die from starving during the summer. If I sell enough fur
coats during the winter, I am paid with money and I can buy food during summer. It is very simple for
modern man, but before it was used in practice there was the longest time period in the life of mankind. Of
course there were no notes at that time, it was anything that could last and could be used for example more
often. In the time people started to use gold and silver, coins were made and notes as we know them today
started sometimes in 16th century. Today we know only bank money. These originate in the great
development of commercial banking in 20th century. [13]
The origin of present banks can be seen in the goldsmiths' workshops who understood long time ago that
they can offer different services such as storing of coins and jewelry and to lend these later to gain some
profit. It was enough to have some relative part of gold in reserve and the rest of the resources could earn
some profit. This was the practical origin of banking.
There is also the fact from bank history, that there were rumors of insolvency and the risks of business and
these caused raids on banks, resulting in bankruptcies in the whole history, that led into foundation of
federal reserve systems in the United States (Fed)1 in 1913, to establish some firm rules and to force the
bank sphere to create some obligatory bank reserves to prevent such bankruptcies. [2, p. 137]
1.1 ORIGIN OF THE MONETARY SYSTEM
The main features of the present monetary system were defined in pre-Victorian England. We can say that
this system has been accepted by every country in the world, no matter if poor or rich countries, but also by
the former socialist countries, even though there were some changes implemented, mainly the fact that
banks are owned by state and not the private sector.
If we get deeper into history, we will learn that there was great change in 17th century when we can speak
about the monetary system very similar in basic features to our present system. Of course the changes in
17th and 18th century implementing for example the possibility of interest, etc., that had been banned for
1
Fed - The Federal Reserve System – central banking system of the United States of America
19
more than twenty centuries, enabled the development of industrial revolution and financial houses, for
example banks and stock exchanges with extraordinary growth.
The national currencies were established in the industrial age, because national states became the ideal of
power. National currencies were one of the most powerful tools of that time for many years. Even though all
the national currencies were the dominating factor of all the states, we cannot forget that there was also
some currency that was possible to use all over the world, and that currency was gold.
Nothing of this is valid today.
United States stopped to define the value of dollar in gold in 1971. We can say that the real value of money
is not material any more. We can see how money change in the hands of bankers, financial brokers and
other subjects into computer data.
We are speaking about money magic today. This term is used because the simple question "Where do the
money come from?" is part of these supernatural worlds. [1, p.50-51] Central banks do not create any
money, so "where do they come from?!"
1.2 THE SECRET OF MONEY
1.2.1 BANK DEBT
Yes, the title of this chapter says everything. The money originate in the loan provided by the central bank
to commercial banks, or in mortgages and other bank products of commercial banks provided to the
citizens and companies for buying of real estate, business activities, etc. Every Dollar, Euro or Crown in
circulation originates in bank debt. Simply, every Crown you borrow from bank to buy anything is based on
the fact that bank transfers this sum to your account. This is the moment when all the money "are born". If
central bank and thus also the state, because the state is indirectly managing the central bank, needs money,
it issues debt securities in order to satisfy commercial banks and through them also other subjects, and all
this is just another debt.
1.2.2 INTEREST
It is impossible not to describe this "devil" connected to the working of money when describing the
monetary system. We must realize that the interest coming from provided loans plays a important role in our
monetary system and clearly it is one of the main creators of the modern history.
The impact of interest implemented in our monetary system is described by Bernard Lietaer in his book The
future of money. [1, p. 52-55]
 The interest is indirectly encouraging the systematic competitiveness between the system's
participants.
 The interest is encouraging the need of continuous growth, even if the real living standard stands
still.
 The interest concentrates the wealth by taxing the major group to the benefit of minor group.
If money are used in a reasonable way, they have great potential to contribute to the wealth of whole
societies, but if the cash flow runs dry, this will cause great trouble, misery and maybe also suffering. We
are witnessing this and we will wait till the demand increases, because there is plenty of supply. We are able
to produce enough food for every person on this planet, we can also give work to everyone, but we are not
able to pay everyone for that and that is the main problem of our system.
2 GLOBALIZATION OF THE WORLD
Thanks to the interconnection of all the households, organizations, firms, corporations and states more and
more problems and questions connected to the social, economical or political spheres become global, thus
overreaching the scope of managers, politicians and governments. Globalization is in any case connected
with the interconnection of financial markets, firms and state interests. It is caused by new technologies,
satellite connection, cellular phones, computers and Internet network, that started this development and
brought unusual and very cheap supply of information. This also led to the boom of electronic trading on
the stock exchange system of any state of European Union, America and the whole world.
Second, also very important part are the thirty years lasting deregulations, privatizations, the accentuated
export strategy of states and thus increasing global trade connected to the growth based on the export policy.
Increasing number of extremist groups, fundamentalism, etc. is the reaction to globalization. The present
time, when governments of advanced countries must deal with this situation connected with growth of
20
poverty and related migration, failure of production, transfer of production into developing countries,
presses on the restructuring of state economy and the society. Great social networks for quickly growing
cities and their citizens spend unimaginable public funds every year.
Of course the globalization has also the better sides such as awareness of people about political, economical
and social events in the world and this helps to strengthening the world's democracy, overthrowing
dictatorial systems of government and aside of the junk such as commercial films, videogames and
pornography there is also the technological development of the world which helps to improve the
environment. Although I personally think that market can handle the stuff concerning the nature and
environment on its own, I had to mention them. [3, p. 10]
2.1 GLOBALIZATION, AND WHAT WILL FOLLOW
In the previous chapter I tried to outline the changes in the society and economy, that had led to the start of
globalization and continuous acceleration and that caused many economical, financial and social-civil
"collisions", that were unavoidable. Everything heads to these collisions, as you can see on the present
world financial crisis that originates not-important where, but quickly spreading all around the world.
The higher involvement of poor people, employees, minorities should contribute to the transformation of
global economy, to ensure the transparency and equality in the creation of modern world. The
transformation of global economy will require involvement of neglected feedback, starting with natural and
local ecosystems and also from people who are part of it but who are pushed by different forms of
globalization to the edge of events.
The way to the transformation of global economy, as seen by Hazel Henderson, shows the way of the right
development. [3, p. 40-45]
First level:
global system, human society exceeding the borders of nations and its impact on the
ecosystem of the planet
Second level:
international system including the developing agreements, treaties and alliances
between nations - exceeding the Westphalia system
Third level:
national/state system, sovereignty and local economical sphere
Fourth level:
system of firms, global corporations, privileges and mechanisms of managing
Fifth level:
regional and local system, small entrepreneurs, autonomy, community organizations
Sixth level:
civil society, voluntary non-profit groups, civil sector from the local one to the global
one
Seventh level: family/individual, scheme of culture, organization and behavior
Table No.1 : The way of global economy changes
Source: [3, p. 40]
No government has any chance to resist the globalization. Globalization is very powerful, not even central
banks on any levels can change using their tools.
3 FUNCTIONS AND SEGMENTATION OF FINANCIAL MARKETS
3.1 POSITION OF FINANCIAL MARKETS IN THE ECONOMY
Financial markets play a very important role in every economical system. They are tool that connect the
financial resources from different subjects, those with surplus or deficiency of such resources. If financial
markets work, they are able to transfer the capital from the subjects with surplus of capital to those with
deficiency, and this way ensure the most effective use of such capital. Also there is the very important
function of ensuring liquidity.
There are irreplaceable functions of financial markets in the economy, the most important of them are
21
allocation of financial resources, determination of prices, ensuring the liquidity, diversification of risks,
decreasing the transaction costs and managing the companies. The free capacity of financial resources
comes mainly from households.
4 THEORY OF FINANCIAL CRISES
4.1 ORIGIN AND PROCESS OF CRISES
There are many theories why there are economic cycles. In general we can summarize them in following
three levels:
 Instability on the demand side
 Instability on the supply side
 Structural fluctuations
peak
Growth of
real GDP
expansion
recession
Saddle(bottom)
Time
Pic. No.1: Business cycle
Source: [9 p. 501]
Crises coming in so called waves are part of the monetary system and we must get used to them.
It is very simple, such as the wedding is the first step to divorce, also the start and growth of economy is the
first step to the crisis that has to come. It has to come because everyone who is part of the economy,
ordinary people, firms and state will contribute to the fact that after the time period of getting into debts,
increasing of living standards and no necessity to save money, the fall must come. The fall is caused by the
fact that there are no money to repay the loans, mortgages for all the consumer goods and housing. Of
course, there is great influence of media that will speed things up. If you hear all the time how everything is
going to get wrong, you will start spending money and buy the goods that is not necessary for the living.
Banks have problems with operating and investment capital, firms do not get any operating and investment
loans, the production stops, dismissing of people and bankruptcy of firms. State does not get enough direct
and indirect taxes and it has to start issuing the debt securities, for which banks respond after the interest is
increased, the banks have even less money for the private sector and the circle is closing.
Financial crisis is also the result of wrong monetary and budgetary policy of governments that indirectly
move citizens to lend, to change the money for goods even if this means excessive indebtedness.
Indebtedness of the advanced western world is high. With increasing indebtedness the stability of the
system is in danger. But the state debts has been kept relatively low till 1970s. But since then the advanced
economies started to aggressively let the social limits out. We are speaking about social revolution and
social-market economy. For example in Germany the state debt2 of 1970s was 18,1 percent GDP, it is
expected 70 percent GDP in 2010. The rate of public debt3 to GDP was 31,4 percent in France in 1970s, in
2
3
State debt – summary indebtedness of government (central or federal)
Public debt – summary indebtedness of government and lower autonomies (regions and towns)
22
1990ss it was 67,2 percent.
Generally speaking, there are only four possibilities how to deal with this situation:
 State bankruptcy.
 Issuing of additional debt securities – will probably lead to point No. 1
 Increase of incomes (increase of taxes)
 Decrease of costs
4.2 MODELS OF FINANCIAL CRISES
References of origins and causes of bank crises are stated in some financial dictionaries for example as "the
cause of bank crisis is usually the excessive supply of loans that are not paid by the excessively indebted
clients in the redemption date“ [5, p. 14]
Among the basic models of financial crises of present financial economics are: [14]
 Financial crisis caused by excessive loan expansion
 Financial crisis caused by wrong macro-economical policy
 Financial crisis caused by financial panics
 Financial crisis caused by deflation of price bubble
 Financial crisis caused by market failure
 Financial crisis caused by excessive inflow of foreign capital
 Financial crisis caused by institutional deficiency of economy
 Financial crisis caused by economical cycles and structural problems
 Financial crisis caused by the group of factors.
CONCLUSION
The topic of financial crises is of course greatly publicized in media and it is a very published topic, but
none the less, it is very important topic and it influences all the spheres and activities of life and it
influences things that person, who is unfamiliar with this topic, would never think of.
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HENDERSONOVA , H.Za horizontem globalizace. Praha : Dharma Gaia, 2001. ISBN 8085905-93-0.
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BARAN, D. Základy kapitálového trhu. Bratislava : STU, 2002. 71 p. ISBN 80-227-1775-4.
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JENÍČEK, V. Globalizace světového hospodářství. Praha : C. H. Beck, 2002. 165 p. ISBN 807179-787-1.
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FOSTER, J.B.; MAGDOFF, F. Velká finanční krize,příčiny a následky. Všeň :
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studie. Vysoká škole ekonomická v Praze, Grantová agentura České republiky. Dostupný z
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http://moneycentral.msn.com/investor/charts/chartdl.aspx?D4=1&DD=1&D5=1&DCS=2&MA0
=0&MA1=0&C5=7&C5D=1&C6=1988&C7=6&C7D=31&C8=1996&C9=2&CF=0&symbol=
%24COMPX&nocookie=1&SZ=0&CP=0&PT=11
ADRESS:
Prof. Ing. Dušan Baran, PhD.
Evropean polytechnical institu, Ltd.
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
e-mail: barandukomplex.cz
24
EVALUATION OF TEACHING WITH SELF-REFLECTION
Zdeněk Botek, Marta Kratochvílová
Gymnázium Uherské Hradiště
Abstract: There are some parameters at school which can be measured, assessed and
evaluated – for example the percentage of successful applications for university studies, the
percentage of applicants to the school itself related to the number of its vacant places, the
average results of students in individual subjects, in classes or in passing years as well as the
number of completed lectures or courses of further education of teachers. One of the
parameters which is difficult to estimate is the quality of pedagogical work which is the main
activity in which all contributing factors should be included. This conference paper tries to
interpret our experience with the involvement of our students into school self-evaluation and it
shows our experience with students´ views on our pedagogical process.
Key words: evaluation, self-evaluation, Student´s view
This method is common at universities, where lecturers are informed after a term about the students´ views
on their lectures or seminars. Fifteen years ago, we asked the students of Uherske Hradiste Gymnasium for
the first time to evaluate the work of their teachers. After a few first attempts we set the rules of so called
“Student’s view”:
1. A student expresses his/her opinion only once after the third year of studies when the tuition of
general subjects is nearly over and students are 18.
2. The student’s assessment is assigned only for the headmaster of the school.
3. The teachers can ask the headmaster for their results and compare them with the results of the
whole school in the same subject and also with further results of the school subjects.
Of course, during the 15 year’s period, there were many discussions if a student of a secondary school has a
right to express his opinion on teaching process and if his views have a sufficiently predicative value.
Exploring our experience lasting many years we can answer both these questions YES. Students´ evaluation
of teachers´ work is very responsible and critical and their opinions agree in many aspects with the
headmaster’s knowledge. The students appreciate positively if the teachers are demanding, consistent and
devoted. On the other hand, a lack of teacher’s interest or inability to captivate students is put in a negative
way.
Let’s to introduce the form we use with our students. There are 12 paragraphs altogether, one for each
subject, below each paragraph there is some space for personal supplementary commentaries. Here it is for
one subject, e.g. Czech:
Czech – the teacher: ________________
1. The ability to create good working conditions and the atmosphere of cooperation
2. Teacher’s professional readiness for the subject teaching
3. The ability to explain the matter
4. The style of teaching and culture of demonstration
5. The correctness in exams and in evaluation of students
6. The stability of knowledge and the depth of subject understanding
The range of answers is described in the beginning of the text:
Answers:
a
excellent
I am enthusiastic
b
very good
I am very satisfied
c
good
I am satisfied
d
weak
I am not satisfied
e
too weak
I am discontented
25
abcde
abcde
abcde
abcde
abcde
abcde
What are our conclusions after 15 years during which we got roughly 6 000 marks from 150 students every
year?
 we can claim that such a wide sample of answers gives us a real reflection of teachers´ work
 these students´ messages were a reward for many teachers for their excellent pedagogical work
lasting many years
 on the other hand for many of them, a critical evaluation was a shake-up from the feeling of calm,
and many of them did nott want to know their results in the following years
 the numeric equivalents of the evaluation of a teacher of a single subject or a class reflected usually
truly the work. However, some commentaries of individual students influenced very negatively
feelings of hardworking and responsible teachers
 due to the fact that mathematics cannot appreciate any average work, the impression of many
successful teachers caused by an average result was very disappointing and negative
 on the other hand the stable teacher’s good results had a positive impact when they helped the
teacher if some parents wanted to impeach his/her qualities. The objections to the fair-mindedness
in examinations were easy to refute because of the former positive evaluations by many students.
What are the results we got out of our students answers? First, we have the really interesting data from the
first year of “Student’s view”. The teachers reached the average result 1.68 and all the students in their
school reports got 1.69. Nearly the same values prove the balance of views. Moreover the final result of the
“Student’s view” with 1.68 gives us evidence that 2/3 of students are very satisfied and 1/3 are
enthusiastic. We take this fact as a very positive evaluation of our work at school.
Four years later, in 2000/2001 the value of “Student’s view” dropped to 2,02 and the following table of
subjects shows us that not the demand factor of the subject but the teachers´ qualities influenced the
students´ satisfaction.
“Student’s view” on education – school year 2000/2001
Evaluation of subjects:
Maths
Biology
History
Physics
Physical Education
Chemistry
English
French
Humanities
Czech
German
Geography
The whole school:
I am enthusiastic
2117
I am very satisfied
1799
I am satisfied
1099
I am not satisfied
393
I am discontented
114
1.5
1.62
1.67
1.91
1.95
2.14
2.23
2.24
2.25
.27
2.34
2.54
2,02
How are the tables set together and valued every year?
 According to the subjects: Each subject has the results of all the teachers in the 3rd form (from 2 in
Arts and Music to 10 in English)
 According to the alphabet: Each teacher has as many lines as many subjects he teaches in the third
form.
 According to the average evaluation: We get a ladder e.g. from the average result 1.1 to 3.76 and
just this ladder is an impulse for the headmaster to have an interview with the teachers who are not
successful in their work in accordance with the students´ views.
The next point to think about is the evaluation of single questions. The differences in the teachers´ results in
6 given questions have a great predicative value and the differences between the result in the criterion of
professional readiness and the criterion of the ability to create the atmosphere of cooperation is in extreme
cases up to 2 degrees.
Fifteen-year experience with “Student’s view” at our school leads us to recommend a similar procedure at
other schools. Nevertheless, it is necessary to point out that it is absolutely essential to respect all above
26
mentioned principles. An experiment of one school, where their students had the form at home and the
family councils solved how to evaluate the teachers and afterwards the results were made public in the
staffroom, cannot be accepted as it will do more harm than good.
ADRESS:
Zdeněk Botek
Velehradská třída 218,
68617 Uherské Hradiště,
tel. 572434101
fax 572434102
e-mail: [email protected]
Marta Kratochvílová
Velehradská třída 218,
68617 Uherské Hradiště,
tel. 572434101
fax 572434102
27
28
MICROREGION KRNOVSKO AND THE CZECH - POLISH COOPERATION IN
TOURISM, BUSINESS AND DEVELOPMENT
Milan Březina1, Kamil Třos2
1
Městský úřad Veselí nad Moravou,
Sdružení zdravotně postižených občanů a jejich přátel, Ostrava
2
Abstract: This report analyzes the basic tools of business strategy, program of business
support and development of the region Krnov. Development of strategic documents dealing
with unemployment, supporting and the development of the Moravian region. Strategy
Documents of strategyof regional tourism support and development of this area are the
Programs of business support and the development of border areas of the region.
Key words: Microregion Krnov, North Moravia and Slezsko, Czech - Polish cooperation,
Euroregion,an association of municipalities, the European Union, strategy, region, program,
infrastructure, tourism, economy, investment, public administration, the border region,
transport, travel industry, tourism , monuments, information center, nature, rest in the region,
economics, cooperation, business, environment, human resources, education, unemployment.
The main strategic aim of developing the Moravskoslezsky region is the sustained growth in quality of
life. Basis for further development of the region are activities that are focused on the development of human
potential, economic restructuring, improving basic infrastructure, improving the level of urban and rural
environments, the reconciliation of environmental protection requirements with the strategic objectives
of economic development, increasing tourism development, international expansion and cross-border
cooperation region. Therefore, individual communities together to protect certain functions and form
a microregions to become a fully integrated part of the county with a significant role in the cultivation of
land, cultural heritage preservation and alternative lifestyles.
FORMATION OF THE MICROREGION KRNOVSKO
At the turn of 1989 and 1990 negotiations began in Krnov, whose main point was the restoration of relations
between the Czech and Polish municipalities in the border regions and the opening of the Polish-Czech
border. Actual development cooperation, however, inhibited slow progress of negotiations between the
Czechoslovak and Polish authorities.
Therefore, border communities have initiated the transfer of emphasis Czech-Polish cooperation at a
regional level and from the early nineties and originated in the Czech and Polish parts of Slezsko
associations of cities and municipalities should develop cooperation with partners on the other side of the
border.
The common aim of these activities was to create the Euroregion Slezko, which was created in about 19951996. Due to the difficulty of reconciling the different expectations and requirements of Slezsko and
clarification of issues of competence, however, to prevent the establishment of the Euroregion.
Therefore, in the second half of the nineties Czech-Polish regional cooperation was transferred into smaller
areas, one of those areas was also Krnovsko. In the nineties, both countries began to attempt an entry to the
European Union. That´s why the opportunity to support projects of the European Union was realized. Town
Krnov maintains long-standing partnerships with a total of eight foreign towns. They are - Głubczyce,
Prudnik, Minsk Mazowiecki, then Yukon (USA), Pefki (Greece), Karben (Germany), Telšiai (Lithuania),
Saint Egréve (France).
The cooperation with the town Głubczyce links with the town Krnov is linked with the partnership
agreement, which was according to the directives of the European Union formally signed by representatives
29
of both cities 26. 5. 2001. The most important event of cross-border cooperation between Glubczyce and
Krnov is a traditional festival Hornoslezsky Festival held every year. During this festival there is an unique
opportunity to convergence and the changeover of two cultures through folklore, cultural, sport and other
performances.
TASKS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE REGION KRNOV
The region supports the development of border areas particularly in these fields of activities:
 Exchange of experiences and information on regional development
 Exchange of experience and information on labour market
 Cooperation in municipal planning
 Solutions common interests in transport, communications and public safety
 Solutions to common problems of ecology and environment
 cooperation in the prevention of dealing with the consequences of natural disasters
 Cooperation in economic and commercial fields
 Development of tourism and travel industry, including development and further improvement of
border dealing
 Making events to support the development of culture, education and sport, in particular, to provide
information on individual activities
 Cultural exchange and management of common cultural heritage
 Mutual cooperation and mountain rescue services in the Euroregion
 Cooperation between schools and youth in the Euroregion
Microregion Krnovsko is located in the northeastern part of the Czech Republic, in Slezsko by the CzechPolish border. It totally includes 25 municipalities respectively 67 cadastral areas. Krnovsko borders on the
west with the newly created district Jeseník, the northern boundary is the same as the state border with
Poland, from the southeastern it borders with the district Opava and the southern border is with the new
”Little Region“ Bruntal.
Climate of the microregion is divided into three parts: the smallest with a warm climate, the largest with
a slightly warm to cold climates. The average annual temperature is 7.8 ° C, an average January temperature
is 2.3 ° C, an average July temperature is 17.8 ° C. An average annual rainfall is about 600mm.
Population of each municipality within the micro Krnovsko are these: Bohušov - 457 inhabitants, Brantice
-1163 inhabitants, Býkov - Láryšov - 158 inhabitants, Čaková - 296 inhabitants, Dívčí Hrad- 262
inhabitants, Heřmanovice - 391 inhabitants, Hlinka - 236 inhabitants, Holčovice - 755 inhabitants
,Hostalkova - 672 inhabitants, Janov - 346 inhabitants, Jindrichov - 1617 inhabitants, karst - 343 inhabitants,
Krnov - 25,641 inhabitants Lichnov - 1092 inhabitants, Liptaň - 442 inhabitants, Town Albrechtice - 3637
inhabitants, Osoblaha - 1163 inhabitants, Petrovice - 166 inhabitants, Ruthenians - 150 inhabitants, Slezske
Pavlovice - 195 people, mineral water, Slezske Rudoltice - 664 inhabitants, Tremesna - 1007 inhabitants,
Úvalno - 919 inhabitants, Vysoká - 315 inhabitants, Zátor - 1162 inhabitants.
The increase and decrease in population - the highest population growth was recorded in Osoblaha the
period 1970 – 2001, about 36.1% higher, while the highest recorded population declined in Petrovice and
Rusin community in the period 1970-2001, and by more than one half. The national composition: Czech
(89.27%), Moravian (2.47%), Silesians (0.69%), Slovaks (3.33%), Polish (0.34%), Germans (0.39%), Roma
(0.19%), Greeks (0.80%), not identified (1.60%). The highest proportion of people claiming to be the Czech
nationality was recorded in the village Zátor (almost 95%), while the lowest in the village of Dívčí Hrad
(78.2%). The largest number of people claiming to Polish nationality was recorded in Janov (1.2%).
Religious composition: no religion - 65, 6%, Roman Catholic - 23, 4%, the Hussite - 0.5%, Greek Catholic
- 0.1%, Protestant 0.3%, Orthodox - 0.4%, others - 2,1 % not identified - 6.8%.
Transport accessability - roads of national importance in the microregion is the road No. I/45 Šternberk Bruntal - Krnov - Glubczyce, where are the investment priorities for road reconstruction Bruntal - Zátor and
byroad Krnov. The move enables the fastest connection with a highway to Prague (motorways Olomouc –
Brno). Lots of the microregion is so reliant on third-class roads. Transport by rail has regional importance in
the microregion lines are Krnov No. 290 - M. Albrechtice – No. 310 Glucholazy and Olomouc - Bruntal Krnov. Air transport is the nearest international airport Mosnov in Ostrava - the leading regional airport is
an airport Krnov property of Aeroclub Krnov. It serves mostly to sport, fire prevention, protection of plants
(agriculture and forestry), sightseeing flights and entrepreneurs. Since 1994, it has had the statut of the
intranational airport.
Border crossing - the border of the microregion with a territory of the Republic of Poland has a length of
86 km. Road border crossing Bartultovice - Trzebina, Prudnik. The classic border crossing is Krnov „JAK ÚSPĚŠNĚ PODNIKAT V PŘÍHRANIČNÍCH REGIONECH JIHOVÝCHODNÍ MORAVY“
30
Pietrowice. Other crossings on local border traffic are Ruthenian - Gadzowice, Linhart - Lenarčič and
Úvalno - Branice. The microregion is located in the zone of little border traffic.
Krnov presentation - geographic location of the town Krnov is situated in Krnov valley in the northeastern
part of the lower Jesenik. The town center is 316 meters above sea level, the highest peaks are the Cvilínský
Hill (436 m) and Bezruč Hill (389 m). The town was founded before the year 1269. The first written record
comes from the year 1221. The size of Krnov is 4 429.77 hectares, its population is 25,641 inhabitants and
the population density is 578.73 person per km2.
Cultural and sports facilities are cinema, theater, museum, municipal library, a puppet theater, concert hall
and music club. In addition, indoor ice rink, indoor swimming pool, swimming, football, athletics stadium, a
squash center, bowling alley, climbing center, an artificial climbing wall, sports airports, fitness centers,
spinning center, in-line pitch, gym, playground, beach volleyball, mini-golf. Major cultural and sports
events are Krnov Music Festival, the Upper Silesian Festival, a young dance show, Greek Days, traditional
folk crafts fair, Christmas market, International art Open Air. Next Grand Prix in boxing, grand prix Krnov
in swimming championships in karate JKA Republic, Silesian half marathon, nationwide indoor volleyball
tournament, volleyball tournament amateur YMCA Krnov chess tournament Krnov Shield, European Cup
giant radio-controlled models, orienteering Hrouzovka .
Strengths in the field of tourism within the microregion Krnovsko is the proximity to Jeseníky, the
potential for year-round recreation, suitable conditions for hunting, hunts, membership in the Euroregion
Praded, natural beauty, well-marked hiking trails and bicycle paths, very good conditions for cycling, a
positive image of pure healthy and natural, historic, architectural and cultural attractions, suitable conditions
for agro-tourism, landscape for skiing - cross country and downhill, competitively priced services, horse
riding base and suitable landscape for riding.
Weaknesses in the field of tourism within the microregion Krnovsko are poor quality and range
of accommodation, big dependence on the weather (lack of alternative attractions under the roof),
underdeveloped tourism infrastructure, lack of experience, skills and profesionality people involved in
tourism, neglect appearance of the landscape and settlements, lack of services for visitors, poor organization
of tourism, lack of products and product packages. (Source: SWOT)
Sights of Krnov are the Town Hall with a tower in Neo-Renaissance style with Art Nouveau details, was
built
in 1901 to 1903 on the site of an old Renaissance town hall from 16th century. Pilgrimage Church of Our
Lady of Sorrows Cvilín. Church of Our Lady of Sorrows is an important pilgrimage site all Slezko. Tower
of Cvilín, which is 26 m high and dates from 1903. Rieger-Kloss organ is the first company to produce
organ Krnov Franz Rieger founded in 1844. His son Otto and his brother has already built a factory on the
artistic production of the organ in 1873, the company adopted the name ”The Brothers Riegerovy. St.
Martin's monumental Gothic building with a late Baroque style, St. Martin, originally from the 15th century.
Sights of microregion Krnov are Linhart Castle, which stands on the site of a former fortress, which was
in 1588 for the Haugvic Biskupic rebuilt into a Renaissance four-winged chateau. The castle grounds, the
park
is established in the years 1890 - 1900 covering about 2.5 ha, which is a statue of Hercules - a monumental
sculpture of the Baroque 1709. Interiér is currently closed to the public.
Girls Castle Castle is a Renaissance mansion built in 1573 by Hynek Bruntálský of Vrbno and finished
Sedlnickými of Choltice from 1591 to 1593. Osoblaha Jewish Cemetery is one of the rarest of Jewish
cemeteries in the Czech Republic. The cemetery was founded in 1616 to 1617. Ruin Fulštejn was founded
before 1255 from Vulmu Herbort. There is a large park. Hans Kudlich Tower, which was recently renovated
tower built in 1913 situated on the hill Strážiště (395 m) above the village Úvalno. It is an appropriate
objective for both hikers and lovers of cycling. There are several very well-marked hiking trails. Zatorsky
mineral water is a very popular mineral spring water in the village Zátor, the Church of the Holy Trinity.
Spring is about 250 years.
INFORMATION CENTER OF MICROREGION KRNOVSKO
1)
Krnov Information Center – Hlavní náměstí 25, Krnov, Contact: Phone 00420 554 612 614,
www.krnov.cz, e-mail: infocentrum.krnov @ seznam.cz
2)
Dívčí Hraad Information Centre – Obecní úřad Dívčí Hrad, Dívčí Hrad 64,Contact: Phone 00420
554 650 014, www.sweb.cz / info.dh, e-mail: info.dh @ seznam.cz
3)
Bohušov Information Center - Bohušov 15, Contact: telephone 00420 554642 121,
www.obecbohusov.hyperlink.cz, e-mail: oubohusov @ raz-dva.cz
4)
Osoblažsko Information Center - Girls 1920 Castle, Contact: Bozena Mruzíková, phone 00420 554
650 214, www.osoblazsko.cz, e-mail: @ oblik.dh quick.cz
31
Nature and some protected and endangered plant species in the micro Krnovsko are dark birch (Betula
obscura), vratička monthly (Botrychium Lunaria) Polabský Epipactis (Epipactis albensis), Forest Evening
(Hesperis sylvestris) ostružník flashy (Rubus micans), field speedwell (Veronica agrestis), black henbane
(Hyoscyamus niger), lily of the lily (Lilium martagon), Orchis (Orchis mascula) vemeník bifoliate
(Platanthera bifolia), helleborine dlouholistá (Cephlalanthera longifolia), Austrian broom (Chamaecytisus
austriacus), toxic daphne (Daphne mezereum) Clubmoss pučivá (Lycopodium annotinum) prstnatec orchid
(Dactylorhiza majalis), pětiprstka žežulník (Gymnadenia conopsea), cowslip (Primula veris). Some
endangered and protected animal species in the micro Krnovsko the bumblebee (Bombus spp.), Ground
beetles (Carabus spp.), Lamprey (Lampetra planeri), fathead minnow (phoxinus phoxinus), great crested
newt (Triturus alpestris), Newt (Triturus vulgaris), great crested newt (Triturus cristatus), fire salamander
(Salamandra salamandra), slender frog (Rana dalmatian), edible frog (Rana esculenta), green toad (Bufo
viridis), common toad (Bufo bufo), Green Tree Frog (Hyla arborea), Yellow-bellied toad (Bombina
variegata), bellied Toad (Bombina Bombina), lizard (Lacerta agilis), Slow Worm (Anguis fragilis) and grass
snake (Natrix natrix), common viper (Vipera berus), white stork (Ciconia ciconia), black woodpecker
(Dryocopus Martius), rook (Corvus frugilegus), Crested Lark (Galerida cristata), Goshawk (Accipiter
gentilis), sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea), Little Owl (Athene noctua) Redbacked Shrike (Lanius collurio), golden oriole (Oriolus Oriolus), wood lark (Lulula arborea), whinchat
(Saxicola rubetra), western hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus), marten (Martes martes), squirrel (Sciurus
vulgaris).
Nature reserves and natural monuments are especially reservation Krasovsky kotel. It was esrtablished
as a reserve in 1989. It is located in the western part of the microregion Krnov, about 2.5 km from Krasova.
The total area of nature reserve is 11.46 hectares. It is located 2-3 km from the village Krasov. Natural
Monument Old Hliniště creation is located north of Krnov abandoned clay pits in the pit of the former
brickworks, with a total area of 4.39 hectares. At the Old Hliniště can find several species of protected flora
and fauna. The site is located center of environmental education. Nature reserve coverage, the total area of
19.25 hectares was proclaimed in 1969. Book covers the top part and the northern slopes of the hill and
around Koprivna called The Oak Hill, on the right bank of the watercourse Krasovka. Altitude reservation
ranges from 430-556 m n mBludný Liptaň rock is located about 1 km from the village Liptaň, near the
narrow gauge tracks Osoblaha - Tremesna in Silesia. It is an erratic blockfrom the northern Fine-grained
granite with red feldspar, age is estimated around 920 - 1010 million years, the circuit is 567 cm and weighs
approximately 4.7 tons is one of the largest erratic block in the Czech Republic.
For the relaxation of the region there are microregion parks – such as Chářovský Krnov Park, Municipal
Park in Krnov park in Linhartová, Castle Park in the Slezke Rudoltice, Park sports complex in Osoblaha,
Bohušov park with the ruins of the castle Fulštejn. Further sports facilities in Bohušov - a natural swimming
pool, tennis courts, beach volleyball court, football field, cycling, Brantice - football pitch, Býkov - Láryšov
- football pitch, Čaková - football pitch, Castle Girls - football pitch, cycling, Heřmanovice - fitness center
football field, Hlinka - football pitch, cycling, Holčovice - volleyball, football pitches, two ski lifts, bike
rental, fitness center, Hostalkova - ski lift (Purkartice Old), Genoa - football pitch, gym, Jindřichov football pitch, gym , tennis courts, karst - a football pitch, Krnov - indoor ice rink, indoor swimming pool,
swimming pool, soccer fields, an athletics stadium, a squash center, bowling alley, climbing center, an
artificial climbing wall, sports airports, fitness centers, spinning center In-line course, gym, playground,
beach volleyball, mini-golf, Lichnov - tennis courts, gym, Liptaň - soccer field, ski lift, cycling, cultural
center suitable for big box sports, City Albrechtice a football field, cycling, gym, Osoblaha - swimming
pool, tennis courts, soccer field, volleyball, cykotrasy, gym Petrovice - ski lifts, tennis courts, a Ruthenian football pitch, volleyball court, Slezske Pavlovice - football pitch, cycling, Silesian Rudoltice - tennis
courts, soccer field, volleyball playgrounds, bicycle paths, two-lane bowling alley, Tremesna - football
pitch, tennis courts, cycling, Úvalno - football pitch, swimming pool, gym, High - a sports complex with
tennis courts, football pitch, cycling, Zátor - football playgrounds, ball games (handball ). Furthermore,
recreational facilities Osoblaha - recreation area with an swimming pool, Holčovice Burning - ski lift at the
guest house ocean, Holčovice Burned - open air recreation center, Holčovice - Forest Bed and Breakfast
Still Life, Bohušov - holiday resort with a natural swimming pool.
Cycling routes - it is mainly trail No. 55 runing along the route Úvalno - Krnov - Town Albrechtice Holčovice - Heřmanovice - Rejviz - Jesenik. The route follows the Polish no.55 Branice route no.34 of 91
km from the Wiechovic Lewice, Pietrowice, Glubczyce, Glogówku. Interesting places Route: Úvalno Tower Hans Kudlich Krnov Cvilín - Šelenburk ruins, the pilgrimage church of Our Lady of Sorrows Cvilín
Krnov - Castle in the city center, concert hall of the Holy Ghost, Linhart - Castle, Castle Garden, City
Albrechtice - Church of the Visitation Virgin Mary, St. Column. Anne Hynčice - lapidary Eldorado,
Holčovice - Evangelical parsonage, the church of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary,
Heřmanovice - folk architecture, church. Andrew, a medieval mine Žebračka, Rejviz - timbered buildings,
32
pond moss, Jesenik - Tower of Gold Chlum water tower, Town Hall. Furthermore, there is a fitness trail
Krnov - Cvilín. This is a cycling fitness Cvilin nearby hill, which dominates Krnov. The trail was created
thanks to the efforts Krnov cycling fans. Significant financial support for their ideas through a grant
provided by USAID/U.S. Peace Corps (U.S. Peace Corps). Along the track there are several historical and
natural attractions, such as former House Shooting - the work of famed architect and native Krnov Leopold
Bauer, the pilgrimage church of Our Lady of Sorrows, on the lookout Cvilín, ruins Cvilin, Hájnický pond
and more. The routes are divided by difficulty to blue (least difficult), green (medium difficulty) and red
(physically demanding).
ECONOMY
Strengths in the economy and entrepreneurship of the microregion Krnovsko: low labour costs, big
space for business, ready industrial zone, geographic location near the border with Poland, improving
transport connections to Poland, the pursuit of economic development in the region, availability of labor
(high number of skilled workers of manufacturing plants).
Weaknesses in the economy and entrepreneurship of the microregion Krnovsko: lack of local capital
for business development, maintenance and condition of roads, location outside the micro-arteries,
unpreparedness municipalities to attract outside investors, lagging behind the level of technology,
equipment obsolescence, Krnov asymmetrical position - the center of microregion, small purchasing power
of the population, lack of local research capacity, interconnection between the education system in practice.
Agriculture in the microregion Krnovsko is in terms of crop cultivation mostly represented by growing
wheat, barley, sugar beet and potatoes. In terms of cattle farming there are pigs and poultry breeding. The
biggest and the most intensive agricultural areas of microregion Krnovsko is the eastern region Osoblažský
výběžek. This area allows the cultivation of most agricultural crops, the average annual temperature here
reached to 8.6 ° C.In terms of production is a sugar beet field, another important crop is barley and wheat,
where it achieved the highest yields. The predominant forage crops on arable land alfalfa. The soil cover is
mainly brown. The nevápenitých alluvial deposits of the encounter with nivními soils. In terms of texture,
the soil is almost exclusively a medium heavy loam and sandy loam, bezštěrkovité. The largest forest owner
in the micro Krnovsko the State, which manages the state forest company Lesy of the Czech Republic.
LAND STRUCTURE IN THE MICROREGION KRNOVSKO:
The total land area of microregion
58 032,5160 ha
Hop-field
0 ha
Forest land
24 125,8593 ha
Meadows
11 154,0137 ha
Arable land
16 712,6395 ha
Fruit grove
16,6600 ha
Vineyard
0 ha
Water land
600,9349 ha
Gardens
1 111,0007 ha
Built-up areas
683,2276 ha
Other areas
3628,1803 ha
NUMBER OF ENTERPRISES IN THE MICROREGION KRNOVSKO:
Number of enterprises
6031
Personal entity
5561
Corporate entity
470
From that foreigners
51
NUMBER OF TRADE LICENSES:
Trade licenses total
Concession contract
Licence
Handicraft licence
Free licence
10809
353
754
2200
7502
33
Export orientation of firms of microregion Krnovsko is the sale of products and services of local
companies which is provided by two-thirds of customers in the Czech Republic in total sales, especially
outside the region. Outside the Czech Republic is realized by about one third of total sales of all firms.
Major industries around the early nineties of last century was dominated in the micro-textile industry,
which had a long tradition and history. Currently, however, far below such importance that still had about
ten years ago. Great importance in the microregion now has in particular industries and wood engineering.
Important micro-industry is also building industry. Traditionally there is the production of musical
instruments, respectively Organ.
Investment in the microregion Krnovsko according to the strategic development plan for microregion
Krnovsko is the main objective to create conditions for new investment, in particular the preparation of
entrepreneurship areas and providing comprehensive services for investors. Another challenge in the field of
economics and business should be to promote the development of small and medium-sized enterprises in
close cooperation between public and private sectors. Finally, there is also interest in developing foreign
trade and economic cooperation across borders.
NEIGHBORING CITIES OF KRNOV:
Bruntal is the oldest town in the territory of the Czech Republic. The first written mention dates back to
1213. Distance from Krnov is 24 km, it covers an area of 2933 hectares and the population is 17 626, the
number of enterprises is 3581, the character of Bruntál is in blue shield in the valley between two wooded
rocks, green trees, right in the mouth of the tunnel rock. In the middle is the green grass miner in a black
jacket and cap,in silver pants. The left holds over his shoulder laid canine, running right in his lap, both
natural colors. Monuments are the castle (open to the public), dean of the Assumption Church, the church
complex of the comfort women and the Virgin Mary Monastery Piarists Baroque pilgrimage church of the
Virgin Mary, the Protestant church, the cemetery chapel. Michael's remains URBAN walls and bastions of
the 15th century in the park, Renaissance burgher houses, the birthplace of Teresa Kronesové (1801 - 1830)
- Vienna's famous singer, a museum in the castle.
Opava is an ancient city and one of the oldest cities in the Czech Republic. The first written mention dates
from 1195, from Krnov distance is 25 km, area: 9 061,87 hectares, the population is 60 731, the number of
enterprises is 12 612. The character of Opava is a shield in the right half is a red field a silver eagle with
golden armor, silver box is left polceno in the right half of the three red chevrons upside down spikes.
Monuments are the church of St. Spirit, the building of the Silesian Museum, evangelical church, the
Watchtower - City Tower, Filípkův Court (People architekrura), Church of Holy Trinity parish church of
the Assumption of the Virgin Mary Church. Hedwig, St. Catherine Chapel. Cross - Sweden's Chapel,
Silesian Theatre, mariánksý columnin the Lower Square, the military fortification.
STRATEGIC VISION FOR THE REGION KRNOV
Moravian-slesian region wants to be ”rich region, based on natural and cultural heritage of previous
generations, respecting its integration into the European Union, which reaches the level of developed
regions of EU Member States“. Failure to meet this vision to the free movement of production factors in the
European Union has resulted in rapid growth of inter-regional disparities and unwanted migration flows, the
negative effects would be seen not only the region and the region, but also the Czech Republic. The
importance of promoting and developing the Moravian-Silesian Region is among other things, that creates a
basic framework for the formation of regional policy, the Region with regard to the regional policy of the
European Union. It will combine its own interests and needs of individual regions and micro- with fulfilling
the convergence criteria of the European Union and the effective combination of resources aktivovatelných
region, state and funds of the European Union's internal and foreign sources of private investors.
At the close, we would like to state that the economy of the Moravian-Silesian Region has undergone a
major restructuring of the steel industry, heavy industry and mining, forestry and the winding up of
lightweight material, manufacturing, agro-food industry and elektrostrojírenského and transformation of
property relationsin agriculture, and thus well as the social transformation of the region. The economic
potential of the Region has a large development opportunities, supported the development of modern
industry. There was restrukturizace heavy and extractive industries in the region and thereby stabilizing the
employment in this sector. Improving the business environment aimed at creating conditions for the
development of micro, small and medium enterprises contribute to increasing the competitiveness of this
area affects its attractiveness and, above all in the service sector will further increase in employment.
Development of the Moravian-Silesian Region, to create new jobs and also reduces the labor market
problems
in the border area. In connection with the environmental response
34
to efforts on the sustainable use of natural landscape and the potential for tourism. Further contributing to
the practical application of environmental innovations and sound technologies, reducing energy, raw
material and material requirements, emissions and waste.
BIBLIOGRAFY
[1] Česko - polské vztahy a spolupráce. Michal Kořán, Mateusz Gniazdowski.
[2] Paul A. Samuelson a William D. Nordhaus: Economics
[3] Program rozvoje Moravskoslezského kraje. Ostrava 2009
[4] Magazine Regionální zeměpis
[5] Internet websites
ADDRESSES:
Ing. Bc. Milan Březina
Městský úřad Veselí nad Moravou
třída Masarykova 119
698 13 Veselí nad Moravou
Mobil: 00 420 603 363 876
Tel.: 00 420 518 670 181
[email protected]
www.veseli-nad-moravou.cz
Ing. Bc. Kamil Třos
Sdružení zdravotně postižených
Občanů a jejich přátel
Cholevova 27
700 30 Ostrava 30
Mobil: 00 420 732 860 782
[email protected]
35
36
POSITION AND ROLE OF A UNIVERSITY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF
REGIONAL HUMAN RESOURCES (IN THE CONTEXT OF CURRENT TRENDS IN
TERTIARY EDUCATION)
Vladimír Čechák
Vysoká škola finanční a správní, o.p.s., Praha
Abstrakt: The issue of the position and role of universities in a region has to be considered
essentially in the context of educational reforms which have been a „hot topic“ of politicians,
as well as of professionals and the public in recent years. As for tertiary reform, attention
should focus mainly on the purpose, nature and role of education. Clarifying this issue clear
may help us to find an effective way of taking technical and organizational measures ,
including financing and all changes, which are the most visible aspects of the above mentioned
reforms.
In the reflections of the past month, on the further developments in tertiary education, there
have been - in one way - „new“ opinions on stagnating and reducing the number of students
entering universities. The reason given is the supposed high capacity offered by tertiary
education institutes and also necessary budget limitations for state universities (that means
not just a descending population curve). There are no outright reactions to this relatively new
situation by universities and the academic community. At the same time diversifying
universities is becoming more and more necessary, which should result in greaterr efficacy of
their activities and in the fostered cooperation between universities and entrepreneurial
entitites.
Due to trends for a higher retirement age, new vistas are opening up for universities
regarding not only intensifying but also seeking new forms and contents of lifelong education focusing mainly on innovating and updating the knowledge of middle-aged and older,
professionally experienced, university qualified people. This focus is imperative and
meaningful because of the need to move the retirement age higher, which can be achieved not
only through appropriate legislative changes, but also by taking effective motivational steps.
Keywords:Reform of tertiary education, financing of university education, number of university
students, diversification of universities, nature and contents of educational activities,
knowledge transfer, regional centres of knowledge transfer, lifelong education, extention of
economic activity of population.
Any reflections on the position and role of universities in the development of a region and its human
resources are strictly limited to the interpretation of the nature of education (especially university
education), on the conceptual level, and to the procedures of reforming education (especially tertiary
education) on the pragmatic level, including legislative changes and adjustments, both those in preparation
and those already enacted. Any university, regardless of its specialization and nature, can offer to „a
region“, that is to its entrepreneurial entities and its public corporations, its highly concentrated and - to a
certain extent - flexible „intellectual capacity“, which it is has at its disposal, as well as its „social capital“,
that means its professional, research and scientific contacts. The quality of these depends on how well the
given university is integrated in the „national system“ of university and research institutes and also in
today‘s European educational and research area.
It is obvious that a specific benefit of the given college in a region is subject to real needs of institutions
and organizations being active in the region and, on the other hand, to specialization, level and quality of the
given college, but also to its placement in education system, both national and „transnational“. In this area
the reform changes (both implemented and intended) represent an initial basis but also „limits“ of existing
and potential possibilities of each particular college. It is the reason why the reform of tertiary education
has constantly been the centre of interest of entrepreneurs, governments and colleges. At present, especially
during the last six months there have been particular changes in expectation, or better to say, in
conceptualization of the expected objectives of the reforms.
37
It is true that the reform of tertiary education runs in parallel with many other more or less objective
processes; this fact was not fully considered at thinking about desired changes in the education process. In
this connection it is appropriate to mention the demographic processes, development of population curve,
ageing population and also the changes related to increasing globalization. Last but not least I must mention
the necessary linkage to real demands and tasks being imposed on education system by the development of
economy, more and more relying on technical and technological innovations and on the development of
modern methods in the area of economic and managerial activities.
Up to now, all intentions related to the reform of tertiary education have aimed at increasing of number of
students which has simultaneously lead to expanding of the capacity of higher education sphere as a
whole. Intentions of the present government policy in the area of education are definitely leaving this trend.
The growth in the number of students as well as the growth in the number of higher education institutions
and study programmes have led to that the higher education study, which was designated to a smaller part of
the population, has changed from ”selective” in mass accessible. The capacity of the higher education
institutions in the Czech Republic can offer opportunity for study almost to 70 % of the population.1
Undoubtedly this development enforces also significant changes (which can be defined as a reform) not
only in the scope of tertiary education, but also in the whole education scope.
If we talk about the necessity from the education reforms, in the same way as in the case of consideration
about the “educated society” (or the knowledge society), we assume most implicitly that all of us
understand the conception, importance and character of the education in a relatively similar but mainly
correct way. The meaning and goal of the higher or university “education” is very often reduced to the use
on the “job market”, which indeed is one of the most important aspects for assessing and evaluating the
education, maybe the most important, but not the only one.
In the discussions about the education reforms including the tertiary education a bigger attention is devoted
to the organizationally pragmatic issues of the education process (including its funding) than to the proper
character, meaning and social function (not only professional) of the education. If we approach the problem
from the position of the „rational logic“, the technical-organizational side of the education process could be
optimally considered rather more as a „function” of its meaning, goal and mission. So far the situation has
been more or less opposite.
With the enormous growth in the number of students at higher education institutions, reached during the last
years, not only the „character“ of the education has changed in many directions (which had a big impact on
its content), but the most important groups of outer actors – the potential employers – have changed also.
The “Mass access” to the higher education goes together with the strengthening of the employers’ pragmatic
expectations that the higher education institutions will “produce” not only educated, but also trained or
rather practised graduates. „Only with a little exaggeration this sometimes can be compared to the
expectation that the study programme is a craft which is not done by hands, but by “head”. With these
words the rector of the Charles University prof. Václav Hampl characterized the situation in this scope in
his speech at the conference dedicated to the 660 anniversary of the Charles University2 establishment.
Undoubtedly it can be said that the orientation towards of strengthening “professional content” in the higher
education degree has strengthened significantly and it has come simultaneously to a closer link between the
graduates and the job market needs. Even the private higher education institutions have reached in this
direction some certain significant success. However, critical comments can be heard especially from the
side of business subjects in relation to the “insufficiency” of the link between the study programmes and the
“work content“ of the most professions, where a higher education qualification is needed. To improve the
situation in this direction the “national qualification framework” could contribute, which has to ensure a
significant coordination between the mentioned “work content” and the requirements for „knowledge and
skills“ of the graduates from the relevant study programmes. It is necessary, however, to be taken in
consideration also the fact that description of the work content of the relevant professional positions is in
some sense “interpretation“ of the present real content of the work activities. If the “national qualification
framework“ catches strictly just this actual „description of the work activities“, there will be a certain
1
Problematice „kvantitativní expanze“ sféry terciárního vzdělávání je věnovaná velmi zajímavá stať J. Kouckého: Kolik máme
vysokoškoláků? Expanze terciárního vzdělávání v ČR ve vývojovém a srovnávacím pohledu. Aula 1/2009, str. 5-19.
2
Hampl V.: Úloha samosprávných univerzit ve vzdělávání. in.: Historie, současný stav a perspektivy univerzit. Karolinum, Praha
2008. str. 39.
38
problem whether the “actual” requirements not only to the education, but also to the professional
qualification, can be also an orientation about the sufficient knowledge availabilities needed for successfully
job performing in the future 30 – 40 years.
On the other hand, it is apparently that the higher education cannot be “reduced” to professional preparation,
as the “human life” cannot be reduced to a professional career. It is a question if a higher educated citizen is
expected to be successful in his professional performance or in “anything more” by not only the employer,
but also by the region and the civil society? Can Humboldtian term for the educated person and his
conception about the university function, which is closely bound up with the European higher education, tell
anything more to the modern time?
We can agree that the social message of the higher education institutions cannot be reduced to the function
of a “supplier” of qualified workforce for the business sector. However, the importance of the professional
preparation in the framework of the higher education studies cannot be played down. On the other hand,
there is a question if the excellent professionally prepared “specialist“, whose social-political and culturalintellectual “perspective” finishes at technically perfect but more likely mechanically commanded
professional “skills”, is the best possible support providing optimistic perspective for the XXI century
modern “cultural” society development. We can ask also the question if the education which is orientated
close or rather reduced to managing the professional preparation, is the suitable citizen’s preparation, which
is so often mentioned as “educated society”. At the same time it is necessary to respect the fact that the
professional “dilettante” can gain a working position hard and never the prestige of “Humboldtian educated
person“.
A demand, especially by the business subjects, is firmly heard for evaluation of the education or rather “the
quality of education” according to the “added value”, which it bears in practical employment, in the
working or manufacturing processes. If we take this stand, the question of the single education as “a value”
appears. So we reach again the problem about the character and the sense of education in the term of
personal as well social view.
Nowadays working groups under the aegis of the Czech Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports have
prepared in consideration to the debates over the proposal of the essential intention of the Law for tertiary
education in 2009, a new material offered to discussion to higher school representatives in March this year.
It is focused on issues connected with the education funding and grants, diversification (and optimization)
of the higher education institutions, as well on issues concerning the quality of the educational process
(defining indicators, their argumentativeness and way of measurement), but also issues of “excellence” and
the way of its implementation in the system of the higher education institutions.
In the last year evaluation of the situation in the tertiary education was done, especially in relation with the
results of the “Bologna process” also at the academic level. From the report prepared by the working
commission for educational process of the Council of Higher Education Institutions about the existing
results of the structured education implementation ensued that in this direction the Czech Republic is among
the most successful countries. The impact on the mass implementation of the structured education on the
quality of the educational process is not in full unique as the mentioned report reveals.
If in the last two years a big attention was devoted to the evaluation of the results from the Bologna process,
relatively a “little” attention was devoted to the other results of the present development of the tertiary
education, especially to the significant growth in the number of students. Relatively often considerations
have appeared, considering the “mass” access to the higher education for one of the main reasons for
reducing its quality. That’s why in the new prepared working materials by the Ministry of Education, Youth
and Sports earnest attention is devoted to the education quality.
The single fact of quantitative growth, i.e. significant increase in the number of students and the number of
higher education institutions (but far less growth in the number of the higher education lecturers), does not
have to be a reason for decreasing the level of the educational process. It can be also stimulus to expressive
diversification of the education institutions. Analogical considerations started to appear in the last months
with the connection to the “high” number of the higher education institutions. If so far the aim of all
programme and organisation changes has been to create conditions for a continuous growth in the number
of the students (the way of funding the state universities was relevant to this), the last months have shown a
significant break in this direction. Regarding the above mentioned circumstances the reducing in the number
39
of students (as well higher education institutions) in accordance with the intentions of the school policy and
continuing reforms. It cannot be said that the new orientation is “positively” accepted by the higher schools
and universities. However, exactly the “academic sphere” has showed very often the negative impacts of the
high quantitative growth in the sphere of the tertiary education. Here is still the question if the reducing in
the number of students can be considered explicitly as a positive step creating conditions for possible
increasing the quality of education. But it can facilitate increasing of the demands of the applicants towards
the higher education. Considerations about the impacts of the reducing in the number of students
respectively programme reducing in the number of students is only in the beginning. The mere fact of
reducing in the number of students is now regarded as a direct effect of reducing in higher school funding. It
is evidently that the higher education institutions and universities have not been prepared to this fact (i.e.
reducing the grants), they have been prepared less to the fact that the reducing (not only once) in the number
of the students would be “programme” and has its “rational” reasons.
If the considerations of reducing in the number mainly of the full-time students of the higher education
institutions are important, the question about the external (or distance) students is opened again although in
another plane. Except of the external combined study of the standard bachelors’ and masters’ programmes it
will be necessary to pay attention to higher education institutions over the kinds of educational activities
which facilitate “innovation” of the knowledge of the graduates from the studied programmes in a define
time distance after the graduation.
Actuality and exactly the necessity of development and ensuring the widest access to these educational
forms can be notable if we consider the fact that during the last ten years the developed countries have
realized about 80 % changes of the technical equipment and technological methods, while for this period
about 20% of the whole workforce has been changed, i.e. with new joined. The importance of the wider
access to the next education as well the formed conception of lifelong education are emphasised by other
circumstances. A person, who graduates from the education without a break (at higher educational level) at
the age of 25, has a real perspective to have forty-year economically active life. For this period with a high
probability the content and character of the knowledge needed for his profession performance will change
some times. Even there will be cases when nowadays demanded higher education qualification (bachelor’s
or master’s) will disappear. It means the conditions, i.e. opportunities for lifelong learning have to be
created, as well a sufficiently functional system of motivation and stimulation. It is related to the field,
where at present the Czech Republic (although it has already been more than 6 years full member of the
European Union) is far behind the average of the EU countries. According the Institute for Information on
Education 25 % of the adult population are involved in the system of lifelong education in the Czech
Republic, while the average figure for the countries in European Union is 40 %. That, which is neglected a
lot, is the analysis of the “content“ side of the realized educational activities under the definition Lifelong
education. It is necessary, but not obligatory, the attributes „systematic and steady“ monitoring as well the
detailed and deep study of the new pieces of knowledge and eventual changes in the supporting paradigms
of the “graduated” study programmes will become naturally a current but expressive part of the
professional and personal life of each graduate from higher education institutions. It will be necessary the
higher education institutions to devote extraordinary attention to the support of this kind of lifelong
education, which is a natural necessity, although the relevant administrative records have not existed so far.
A wide field of very close organic cooperation among the higher education institutions and subjects
working in the region (business and public corporations) is outlined just in this scope. The higher education
institutions should take into account the needs of the region when they create the content conception and
essential focus on the relevant activities of the lifelong education, but they have to fulfil the function of an
active, regional centre of transfer not only of professional and research, but also scientific information,
including the context where they originated. It means e.g. to strengthen the orientation of own research,
whose part must be the type of research, which e.g. prof. Pačes (at the time when he was the President of the
Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic) defined as „seeking“, which is often disregarded, but its
importance for the economical growth and increase of competitiveness is extraordinary in many aspects.3 If
a higher education institution in the region must be an “active“ subject of the knowledge transfer, it has to
concentrate not only on the obtaining of the information knowledge and research results, but also on its nonsubstitutable task which lies especially in their analysis, qualification, evaluation and „interpretation “ into
the real context, where this knowledge for the relevant business subjects working in the region is practically
3
Pačes V.: Význam vyhledávajícího výzkumu pro ekonomický růst. In. Znalostní ekonomika. Sborník z konference. Praha, 2006.
ISBN 80-86754-63-4 (str. 22).
40
valuable, i.e. into the context where the knowledge brings (“measurable“) value added. In the framework of
the mentioned knowledge transfer it is necessary to orientate not only to “direct applicable knowledge“, but
also to moving and changes in the scope of the theory of the relevant scientific branch, where the mentioned
knowledge has been produced, including innovations and changes of the basic paradigms of the particular
science. In principle such an orientated activity is strictly beyond (more or less schematically) the defined
field of the “applicable research“.4 If other subjects (e.g. different “information“ or “documentary“ centres)
can provide the simple transfer (of simple) information (maybe by the simple way), that is exactly the above
mentioned active, contextual-interpretation activity at the transfer of (scientific) knowledge and
information, in which a higher education institution works in the region and is fully irreplaceable. This
activity is organically bound with the tie-in system (with the previous high education) activities of the above
mentioned lifelong education and at the same time with the “practical” needs in the region where the higher
education institution works.
Moreover, at the “innovative” study of experienced, higher educated qualified workforce conditions for
synergistic effect are created: integration of practical experience with the new theoretical pieces of
knowledge. In general it is considered that the professional qualification is not obtained only with the
education (although higher education) before the entrance the job market, but it is significantly created with
working experience. If we take into account the fact of „aging“ population, not only the prolongation of the
average age, but with the growth in the number of the people who live elderly, it is very efficient to seek a
way for “long lasting” of the period of “active“ (not only economical) working. A big importance has not
only seeking the optimal forms for keeping this part of the population at the relevant level of actual
knowledge and ability to work active with them, but also seeking efficient ways for improvement of the
health (physical and mental) characteristic of this (senior) part of the population. The non-substitutable task
of the higher education institutions for the development of the human resources in the region lies just in this.
A question rises here if it is possible by optimal way with legal changes to reach “lasting of the retirement
age“ (in the retirement reform framework), or rather (again in the framework of the mentioned retirement
reforms) to seek such motivating and stimulating measurements, which would “prolong” the active
(economical) age by more natural, acceptable and also more effective way, i.e. by development of such
activities (educational), which are in connection with the development of the work method knowledge base,
which will facilitate prolongation of the effective, valuable, economic activities for the senior generation.
And right here the higher education institutions in the region can have a significant contribution.
REFERENCES
[1]
Pačes, V.: Význam vyhledávajícího výzkumu pro ekonomický růst. Sborník z konference
Znalostní ekonomika. Praha: Vysoká škola finanční a správní, 2006. ISBN 80-86754-63-4
[2]
SBORNÍK: Historie, současný stav a perspektivy univerzit (uspořádal J.Staša). Praha: Univerzita
Karlova, 2008
[3]
SBORNÍK: Hodnocení kvality vysokých škol. Ústí nad Labem: UJEP, 2008
[4]
CHVÁTALOVÁ, A., KOHOUTEK, J., ŠEBKOVÁ, H.: Zajišťování kvality v českém vysokém
školství. Plzeň: Aleš Čeněk, 2008. 208 s. ISBN: 978-80-7380-154-0
[5]
KOL.: Bílá kniha terciárního vzdělávání. MŠMT, 2008
[6]
LIESSMANN, K. P.: Teorie nevzdělanosti. Praha: Academia, 2008. 127 s. ISBN 978-80-2001677-5
[7]
PETRUSEK, M.: Ať je stůl k pohoštění prostřený. Praha: Karolinum, 2008. 240 s. ISBN 978-80246-1448-9
[8]
KOUCKÝ, J.: Kolik máme vysokoškoláků. Aula č. 1/2009- str. 5-19
[9]
PRUDKÝ, L., PABIAN, P., ŠÍMA, K.: České vysoké školství 1999-2009. Praha: GRADA, 2010.
168 s. ISBN 978-80-247-3009-7
[10]
Materiál Ministerstva školství, mládeže a tělovýchovy: „Návrh věcného záměru o vysokých
školách“.
[11]
Materiál Ministerstva školství, mládeže a tělovýchovy: „Inovační strategie“.
4
V současných diskusích je existence „striktní hranice“ mezi základním (teoretickým) a aplikovaným výzkumem stále častěji
odmítána.
41
ADRESS:
Prof. PhDr. Vladimír Čechák, CSc.
Vysoká škola finanční a správní, o.p.s.,
Estonská 500,
101 00 Praha, 10
č. tel.: 210 088 810,
mail: [email protected]
42
THE INFLUENCE OF POSITIVE IMAGE AND FIRM COMMUNITY ON
STABILIZATION AND RECRUITING THE BEST EMPLOYEES
Ivan Dlugoš
Makyta a. s. Púchov
Abstract: The aim of this contribution is to show and analyze the attributes influencing and
forming conditions for stabilization and recruiting the best employees.
One of the basic marketing factors is image. In personnel sphere this image means the quality
and standard of employer in all aspects and obviously forming and enforcing the positive
image inside and outside the organization with the help of clearly defined rules and principles
of personnel management and organizational culture.
At present labour market, which was and still is influenced by economic and financial crisis,
there are employers who are worth working for. These employers dictate orientation and
priorities which are to be followed in the sphere of strategy and human resources management
so that even those having problems with recruiting and maintaining the top employees can be
successful through defined, declared and applied principles.
If firms want to survive and hold out, they need loyal employees, they have to change internally
so that they will become a place where people get involved, show their mutual interest in one
another and all show their devotion to their organization.
Key words: Best – top employee, talent, impression, human resources policy and management,
organization culture, firm community
INTRODUCTION
When reading contributions and presentations in many electronic media, articles in specialized magazines
and also in daily press the reader often comes across personal declarations of managers from different
activity spheres, production and from service sphere in which the most used statements on the topic of
people – employees – workers are following: „people are our greatest assets“, or if viewing visions,
missions, goals of every employer „ high quality people are our greatest asset. Such commentaries on this
topic are very similar. Al right, there is nothing bad about it, just the opposite, until the content of these
noble words of top managers and institutions is also carried out, in many cases also from the point of view
of enforcing the basic rules and principles of human resources management and of all aspects concerning it.
Of course, there are employers and managers working for them who fulfill what they declare and they do it
fully through their behaviour and activities and just this is the whole point and trend towards sustainable
state – in necessity to stabilize the existing and recruit new, flexible and qualified employees who are loyal
to their employer.
People react positively on marketing stories and targeted advertisement which they can identify themselves
with, because they show their world in proper scale. If they are confronted with environment and measures
which are strange or even opposing for them, negative emotions emerge. It is the same in the sphere of
personal management, the aim and from the point of view of daily manager activity also necessity of which
is to create optimal conditions for acquiring, professional growth and supporting top employees. This must
be done if the organization represented by such management wants to break through international
competition. Today it is not enough to compete only with price, product, but today ´s competition is about
the best qualified people and talents.
To reach strategic goals and competitive results it is necessary to perform changes concerning stabilization
of existing labour force and gaining new top specialists, taking care of their fast and successful adaptation in
organization as well as of their continuous and permanent growth. Image of organization has become of
highest importance. In this connection it is not anymore about searching and recruiting new employees, it is
about marketing. In greater detail, it is about definition, defferentiation and general backup of signals which
the firm sends towards present and future employees.
43
1 HUMAN RESOURCES SYSTEM
Viewing theoretical attitudes, human resources management works through the system of human resources,
which interconnects in a logical and thought out way:
 Human resources philosophy describing key and umbrella values and basic principles applied in
people management.
 Human resources strategies defining the direction which human resources management wants to
follow.
 Human resources policy which are principles defining how these values, principles and strategies
should be applied and realized in particular spheres of human resources management.
 Processes in the sphere of human resources containing informal steps used when managing people.
 Practices in the sphere of human resources enabling the strategy, policy and practice to be realized
according to the plan.[1]
The best intended method, process, principle and programmes do not bring any benefit and required effect
if they are only a part of formal principles concerning the fulfilling of declarations of a particular employer
within certificated systems of given spheres of activities and sphere of human resources management
connected with them.
In connection with this it is useful to remember absolutely elementar principles of managerial activity:
 the power of qualified arguments and not the manager´s voice are deciding and inevitable,
 trust but check,
 he who manages, checks as well,
 right must equal responsibility,
these principles, if not followed, respected and applied may be one of the most important reasons
or problems if you are about to realize and fulfill system measures in the sphere of human resources.
2 COMMUNICATION PROCESS IN MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
The most important and useful from all human qualities and knowledge are those affected communication.
Communication abilities influence effectiveness of private and professional life of every man. [2]
The man in working process as well as during all his life is in a constant contact with other people. This
mutual contact results in mutual effect and influencing which is described as social interaction in
professional terminology.
People do not always communicate only on the basis of handing over factual information or when they
share together emotions and experiences they like.
In present period of recession it is especially important to have in managerial positions people who are:
 able to gain fast relevant information and possibility for the first thinking about themselves and
about others,
 flexible and so capable of communication leading to necessary changes and with them connected
decisions,
 inspiring and innovating,
 temperament but not full of conflict,
 asertive and thus taking into consideration one of the basic communication capabilities, that is
professional and human dimension prevails emotions.
Starting with four elementar managerial functions which are:
 planning,
 organizing,
 leading,
 checking,
it is obvious that communication process in every form is an inseparable part of management system on all
levels of organization hierarchy.
Organization – employer exists through collective activity of people. Inspite of it every person is capable of
his own action which need not be in concordance with firm policy or instructions, or need not be correctly
accepted by other people who shoul know about it.
44
To reach coordinated results it is needed to have ensured and functional communication.
Recently the organizations have been exposed to influences of constant changes which affect:
 work of their employees,
 their contentment,
 sense of security.
The change may be coped with only if it is ensured that the reasons of this change were presented to those
affected with it and that it was done in a clear and understandable way. In this way you eliminate the
problems caused by late, unclear or not transmitted information.
From the point of view of communication at working place it is inevitable and irreplaceable for the
managers on all levels to create space for open communication among employees they manage and not to
allow the communication to be restricted only on setting tasks, giving orders, measures and then on
checking and evaluating them. In this connection it is necessary to point out at problems of some managers
who just because of restricted communication with their employees prevent or in many cases do not form
necessary space for feedback, uttering a different and many times a more effective and stimulating attitude
to solving concrete task and for opinion of performing worker, which causes:
 elimination, in many cases overthrown and from the point of view of competitiveness necessary
changes,
 obstacles to innovations and to involving a larger group of workers to development programmes,
 verbal – word solution of common working problems outside internal environment of organization,
which in the end negatively influences assesments of organization in public with an open
or intended attitude, or more precisely with the question of the third side ( not involved people but also
potential applicants for job) : „ what kind of employer can the one be who is no table to solve such situation
inside his firm and is it possible at all?“
In this connection it is necessaary to emphasize the fact that nobody in external environment can solve the
internal problems and tasks instead of managers and employees managed by them, just the opposite,
external environment should not know about such problems, drawbacks and mistakes and external
environment would not know it at all if the question of open communication were a standard thing within
applied organization culture. Competition can do nothing but be fond of internal problems of another
organization and can make use of these problems, as many things are surely not appropriate for presentation
in public.
On one side there is a question of space for direct verbal communication between employer represented by
his manager and concrete employee, on the other side space for presentation, proposals and incentives from
employee to employer in the form of written communication. The form of a written working communication
is good mainly beacause of the fact that not every person has a courage to address and say his opinion
personally and direct and this holds good especially in the period which is marked by the need to increase
the efficiency of every area of organization activity, including the area of personal costs. In this moment
you may ask if it is possible at all that there are such managers in any organization who when considering
true opinions, remarks and incentives are able to „solve in terms of personnel“ the employee who dared to
have a different opinion and attitude to a concrete situation? Yes, there exist also such managers who in
many cases are favourites of top managers, or more precisely are covered with a false mask of their honesty,
loyalty and justice in their personal access, in the matter of benefits to employer due to their work. Here the
problem and difference lie among the organizations which are not indifferent about stabilization, growth
and future perspective on the contrary to those ones who see a more personal rather than a broader
dimension of their existence.
3 IMAGE OF ORGANIZATION
Today image is in general one of cardinal terms in psychology of relationships with the public and
propagation.The basis of positive image is a united and positive presentation of organization.
Present development of society is characterized by a lot of contraries and up to now unknown situations.
Let´s have a look at globalization ,for examle – it can bring economic growth to the areas known for poverty
and need but on the other side it can cause loss of labour positions and opportunities and form fertile
ground for a conflict or even crisis.
Image consists of objective and subjective, of correct and uncorrect opinions, attitudes, experiences of
a person or a certain group of people about a certain subject of the opinion. [3]
45
Image is a result of exchange of opinions between an individual and society often realized in conflict
situations when the individual making some decision finds himself under certain pressure which is not a
sporadic situation in the period of constant changes in all areas of activity today, just the opposite.
Considering the forming of basis and development of positive image in every organization, it is necessary
to solve the question of unified and quality system of organization presentation and this must be done in
both, private and state organization and it should bring effects into internal and external communication.
Transparent information heading for inside and outside of organization is or should be closely connected but
on the other side it is necessary for this information to be professionally distinguished – information used in
internal communication from the one used and necessary in external communication.
Intensive internal communication among employer and his employees manifests itself mainly in periods of
crisis and restructuralization caused by it which is accompanied by reduction of employees. This period of
reducing the staff is the time when negative relations among particular working places, teams and
individuals appear, and it is also the period when characters of people are revealed, when managers find
themselves in open and also hidden and anonymous controversial situations, full of accusations and threats.
To minimize and eliminate these for every organization unpleasant and negative situation it is inevitable to
apply a sensitive and effective approach to communication with internal public of organization.
If a serious discrepancy among employees and their employer still exists for any reason or if its solving
takes a too long time, it can cause a negative impression in other subjects – clients, suppliers, state or self
governing institutions or even in perspective applicants for work. Image and reputation of such an
employer become usually worse which is not good and in no case contributes to positive addressing public
opinion, good reputation won in public in previous period is eliminated. In this context it is useful to
remember the old but in praxis prooved truth that: „you lose your face very easily but you gain it back very
hard or not at all“.
4ORGANIZATION CULTURE AND FIRM COMMUNITY
In the theory of management but also in society generally an opinion dominates that managers are directly
responsible for success or failure of organization. This fact is described as all-powerfu lattitude towards
management. Other authors of this theory of management argue that many successes or failures of
organization are influenced by external circumstances which managers cannot affect or check. In this
connection it is pertinent to clarify how much trust or distrust with respect to productivity of organization
belong to managers except the influences mentioned above in this article. [4]
Internal limits restricting managers´ decisions exist in every organization and are fixed or formed by
concrete organization culture declared and used in everyday life of organization. Except for these internal
limits, there are also external restrictions or environment where the oganization exists and its operation and
work is presented in picture 1.
Space for decision making
Organization
culture
Firm environment
Picture 1: Characteristic and possibilities of decision making
Source: Management (Stephen P. Robbins, Mary Coulter)
Organization culture or culture of organization (firm, plant, company) is a formula of basic and decisive
ideas which a certain group found or formed, revealed and developed, through them the group has learned
how to manage problems of external adaptation and internal integration and as these ideas have proved
themselves useful they are accepted as genarally valid. New members of organization are expected to
manage them, identify with them and act according to them, if possible (Schein, 1969).
The basic level of organizational culture lies in an overall view of world and in the approach to life, work,
people and to oneselves, as well as to life of individual workers. It works separately, unintentionally,
46
automatically, usually without meditation and considering possible consequences for oneself or for
organization. It includes mainly:
1. relation to world around and first of all to environment of organization,
2. organization ideas about man´s nature and about reasons of his acting which are transformed into
ideas about other workers,
3. ideas abou t the nature of interhuman relations,
4. ideas about truth which give answers to question – what makes worker make some decision, what
is true and right, what is false or untrue. [5]
Nowadays it is necessary and desirable for each organization to have managers who do not lose contact
with reality which requires a milder and less demonstrative form of leadership. This form can be
characterized as engaged and distributed management. The leader working under conditions of firm
community is personally engaged so that he can provoke engagement and initiative of other people.
Maybe, time has come to cut oneself off from traditional heroic leadership and to accept the idea that only
purpose-built, precise leadership is needed, or such leadership which intervenes only when necessary and
otherwise encourages people in organization to be able to cooperate and perform their work and tasks well.
The subject of our interest should be rebuilding of organizations into firm communities. Most books and
professional articles on management of big changes in companies - transformation of firm, revitalization –
are concentrated on traditional leadership. It can work but the question arises how probable it is and how
long it can work. Here it is appropriate to ask: „what happens if the leader who lead the whole change will
leave the firm?“ It seems that time has come to rebuild the firm not from top to bottom but from middle
level outwards – with the help of initiative groups of middle managers who put together and start to realize
the changes in their organization.
Is it really possible for big transformations to start almost spontanously through people who are not a part
of top management? American author Peter Block in one of his books wrote: „ really sustainable changes
for the better in communities come into existence when citizens discover their power to act, when they stop
to wait for what the professionals and elected leaders suggest them, when they realize that they can take
back what they delegated to their representatives.“ We can imagine every manager and leading worker as
a citizen of our corporation. Each healthy organization keeps a balanced relation among principles of
leadership, community and citizenship.
CONCLUSION
Who are the people thanks to whom the organization is successful in business? They are the people
organization regards very highly and people the organization cannot afford to lose, the irreplaceable,
replacement of which will cost most and the ones who are crucial from the point of view of success in
business strategy of organization.
Managers waste too much time on solving problems of non adaptable workers and idlers although they
should concentrate on active effort to keep their best – top and most appresiated workers. The price paid for
their concious indifferene is leaving of key employees in the least suitable moments. [6]
The goal of successful company is to have content clients who return and are interested in products or
services of a certain company. If the client is satisfied, the owner must be satisfied too and if the owner is
satisfied, his employees will be satisfied too.Successful organizations know that they can be and stay
competitive only with right people in right positions. The try not only to search talents on market but also
among their own employees. It is not enough to find a talent, you must keep these people in organization,
develop their skills and involve them in ambitious goals
More and more organizations, big, medium-sized, small, are finding the way how to win the battle for
keeping and gaining top employees, how to gain their favour and liking. They prosper in spite of various
problems because they bound themselves to do their best to keep their best workers. Why? They know they
profit from these workers. They realize that if these people stay they will improve their performance and
work and so contribute to a solid ralation among organization and its best clients which leads to long-term
success and prosperity on market.
47
LIST OF LITERATURE
1. Monografie
[1]
ARMSTRONG, M. 2007. Řízení lidských zdrojů. Praha: Grada Publishing, a.s., 2007. 769 s.
ISBN 978-80-247-1407-3.
[2]
DE VITO, J. A. 2008. Základy mezilidské komunikace. Praha: Grada Publishing, a.s., 2008. 482
s. ISBN 978-80-247-2018-0.
[3]
SVOBODA, V. 2009. Public relations moderně a účinně. Praha: Grada Publishing, a.s., 2009.
230 s. ISBN 978-80-247-2866-7.
[4]
ROBBINS, S. P. – COULTER, M. 2004. Management. Praha: Grada Publishing, a.s., 2004. 514
s. ISBN 80-247-0495.
[5]
BEDRNOVÁ, E. – NOVÝ, I. a kol. 2007. Psychologie a sociologie řízení. Praha: Management
Press, 2007. 791 s. ISBN 978-80-7261-169-0.
[6]
BRANHAM, L.: Jak si udržet nejlepší zaměstnance. 1. vydání. Computer Press, Brno 2004.
ISBN 80-251-0223-7.
2. Články v časopisoch
[7]
TOMAM, M. 2009. Ako zanechá firma dobrý dojem na verejnosti. ZISK, mesačník Poradca
podnikateľa, spol s r.o., Žilina, 9/2009, str. 49 - 51. ISSN 1337-9151.
[8]
MINTZBERG, H 2009. Rebuilding Companies as Communities, Harvard Business Review, jún –
august 2009, s. 140 – 143, uverejnený výber: MODERNÍ ŘÍZENÍ , mesačník, 2/2010., str. 20 –
23. ISSN 0026-8720.
3. Internetové zdroje
[9]
http://referaty.hladas.sk/referat.php/personalny-marketing/21/16360
ADRESS:
Ing. Ivan Dlugoš, PhD.
Makyta, akciová spoločnosť Púchov,
Ul. 1. Mája 882/46,
020 25 Púchov,
tel.: +421905740022,
fax.: +421424631979,
48
THE SOLUTION OF DECISION MAKING PROBLEMS IN MATLAB
Petr Dostál1, Oldřich Kratochvíl2
1
Brno University of Technology,
European Polytechnic Institute Kunovice
2
Abstract: This paper deals with the way of solution of decision making problem by means of
fuzzy logic in program language MATLAB where multiply rule boxes must be used. The fuzzy
logic enables to work with vague terms that are quite used in business and public services. The
designed solution could be used for decision making processes to be successful in business also
at cross border regions of southeast Moravia.
Keywords: Fuzzy logic, decision making, multiply role boxes, MATLAB.
1 INTRODUCTION
There are situations when it useful to use fuzzy logic for decision making processes because of their ability
to use vague terms such as uncertainty, semi truth, unclearness etc. The applications include business and
public services. There are various inputs that are necessary to take into consideration on the output and it
will not be discussed in this article. The problem is when it is necessary to process the evaluation of
multiply rule boxes in MATLAB. It could be done with the help of program via M-file.
2 CASE STUDY
The case study presents the example where there are some direct inputs I1 and I2 directly connected to final
rule box BF and inputs connected to partial rule box B1 and B2. The connection can be done by creation of
M-file, that enables to read the input data, but also it transfers results to other blocks. The example is
presented by following diagram. See Fg.1.
I1
I2
I3a
I3b
I3c
I4a
I4b
B1
BF
B2
Fig. 1 Connection of rule blocks
The variables I1 and I2 are inputs to final rule box BF (see Fig.2) together with output from rule box B1 (see
Fig.3) with inputs I3a, I3b, I3c and output from rule box B2 (see Fig.4) with inputs I4a, I4b.
This case study could represent for example the problem of decision making for choosing the best supplier
in the region of southeast Moravia. The inputs I1 represent the price of product and input I2 the quality of the
product. The block rule B1 presents business conditions with inputs packaging I3a , discount I3b and
guarantee I3c. The block rule B4 presents other criteria such with inputs reliability I4a and willingness I4b of
49
supplier. The output presents decision making supported by vague terms of cooperation with supplier reject,
monitor or accept it.
Fig. 2 Rule box BF
Fig. 3 Rule box B1
50
Fig. 4 Rule box B2
The M-file BF.m provides the calculation. See prog.1.
clear all
B1v = readfis('B1.fis');
UdajB1 = input('Input values in the form [I3a; I3b; I3c]: ');
VyhB1 = evalfis(UdajB1, B1v);
B2v = readfis('B2.fis');
UdajB2 = input('Input values in the form [I4a; I4b]: ');
VyhB2 = evalfis(UdajB2, B2v);
BFv = readfis('BF.fis');
UdajBF=input('Input values in the form [I1;I2]: ');
UdajBF(3) = VyhB1;
UdajBF(4) = VyhB2;
VyhBF = evalfis(UdajBF, BFv);
if VyhBF<0.5 'Reject'
elseif VyhBF<0.8 'Monitor'
else 'Accept'
end
fuzzy(BFv)
mfedit(BFv)
ruleedit(BFv)
surfview(BFv)
ruleview(BFv)
Prog. 1 M-file BF.m
The results of calculation are presented by inputs I1,I2, I3a, I3b, I3c, I4a, I4b with values 0, 1 and 0.5. The
results are Reject, Accept and Monitor. See res 1.¨
Input values in the form [I3a; I3b; I3c]: [0;0;0]
Input values in the form [I4a; I4b]: [0;0]
Input values in the form [I1;I2]: [0;0]
ans =Reject
Input values in the form [I3a; I3b; I3c]: [1;1;1]
51
Input values in the form [I4a; I4b]: [1;1]
Input values in the form [I1;I2]: [1;1]
ans =Accept
Input values in the form [I3a; I3b; I3c]: [0.5; 0.5; 0.5]
Input values in the form [I4a; I4b]: [0.5; 0.5]
Input values in the form [I1;I2]: [0.5; 0.5]
ans =Monitor
Res. 1 M-file BF.m
3 CONCLUSIONS
The above mentioned methods could be used for the solution of multi criteria, difficult to algorithm decision
making processes. There is no limitation of number of inputs and rule boxes and the way of use for decision
making processes.
LITERATURE
[1]
ALIEV, A., ALIEV, R. Soft Computing and Its Applications, World Scientific Publishing Ltd,
UK2002, 444p., ISBN 981-02-4700-1.
[2]
ALTROCK, C. Fuzzy Logic & Neurofuzzy – Applications in Business & Finance, Prentice Hall,
USA, 1996, 375p., ISBN 0-13-591512-0.
[3]
DOSTÁL, P. Moderní metody ekonomických analýz – Finanční kybernetika, UTB Zlín, 2002,
110p., ISBN 80-7318-075-8.
[4]
DOSTÁL, P. The Use of Fuzzy Logic at Support of Manager Decision Making, In Management,
Economics and Business Development in the New European Conditions, Brno, 2005, p.44, 5p.,
ISBN 80-214-2953-4.
[5]
DOSTÁL, P., RAIS, K., SOJKA, Z. Pokročilé metody manažerského rozhodování, Grada, 2005,
168 p., ISBN 80-247-1338-1.
[6]
DOSTÁL P. Risk Management and Fuzzy Logic, In Word of Information Systems, Zlín, 2006, p.
115-120, ISBN 80-7318-400-1, ISSN 1214-9489.
[7]
DOSTÁL, P. Pokročilé metody analýz a modelování v ekonomii, Akademické nakladatelství
CERM s.r.o, 2006, 61p., ISBN 80-214-3324-8.
[8]
Dostál, P. Advanced Economic Analyses, Akademické nakladatelství CERM s.r.o., 2008, 80p.,
ISBN 978-80-214-3564-3
[9]
KLIR, G.J., YUAN, B. Fuzzy Sets and Fuzzy Logic, Theory and Applications, Prentice Hall, New
Jersy, USA, 1995, 279p., ISBN 0-13-101171-5.
[10]
RIBEIRO, R., YAGER, R. Soft Computing in Financial Engineering, A Springer Verlag
Company, 1999, 590p., ISBN 3-7908-1173-4.
ADDRESS:
Prof. Ing. Petr Dostál, CSc.
Brno University of Technology
Faculty of Business and Management,
Department of Informatics
Kolejní 4, 612 00 Brno
Tel. +420 541 143714,
Fax. +420 541 142 692
[email protected]
hon.prof. Ing. Oldřich Kratochvíl, Dr.h.c.
Private European Polytechnic Institute
Osvobození 699,
686 04 Kunovice
[email protected]
52
THE UNITAS PROGRAMME - THE REFORM OF TAX AND CUSTOMS
ADMINISTRATION REFORM, WITH A VIEW TO UNIFYING THE COLLECTION
OF TAXES, CUSTOMS DUTIES AND INSURANCE CONTRIBUTIONS
Juraj Dubovec1, Vladimíra Hlaváčková2
1
Žilinská univerzita v Žiline
Evropan polytechnice institut, Ltd. Kunovice
2
Abstract: In this article are described the changes that reform of tax and customs
administration with the unification of tax collection, customs and insurance contributions in
Phase I. UNITAS (Italy unit) brings. The first key area is the merger of tax and customs
administration and establishing a new system of management and organization of the selection
state revenue through the creation of the Financial Report of the Slovak Republic, which will
be implemented after the implementation of reform steps taken in particular in these
organizations. To merging the tax and customs administration occurs at the level of the Slovak
Tax Directorate and Customs Directorate of the Slovak Republic, which will be merged into
one budget organization entitled "The Financial Directorate of the Slovak Republic” and also
on the level of tax and customs offices, whose numbers will be reduced to eight financial
authorities HTU in settlements and two specialized offices. Reform of tax and customs
administration with the unification of tax collection, customs and social security contributions
is characterized by bringing a comprehensive and fundamental change for the organization.
Key words: tax, toll, reform, progress, centralization.
INTRODUCTION
Effective, efficient and customer-oriented tax and customs administrations are an instrument for funding the
basic roles of the state in well-developed countries. In compliance with the Slovak Government Manifesto,
the MoF SR defined one of its priorities as continuation of the tax administration reform, as well as the
customs administration reform, gradually resulting in the unified collection of taxes, customs duties and
insurance contributions. In respect of this, the MoF SR developed the strategic document “Tax and Customs
Administration Reform and Unification of the Collection of Taxes, Customs Duties and Insurance
Contributions (Framework Analysis and Proposal of Proceedings)” (hereinafter the “Reform Strategy”).
This document defines the objectives and outlines the basic procedures for reform of the tax and customs
administration and for unifying the collection of taxes, customs duties and insurance contributions in the
two phases of the UNITAS I and II programme.
The “Concept” was proposed by the MoF SR on the basis of the Reform Strategy for the purpose of
accomplishing the objectives ensuing from the Government Manifesto. At the same time, this document
represents the performance of Task B.1 of Government Resolution 221 of 8 March 2006 which charged the
Minister of Finance, together with the Minister of Labour, Social Affairs and the Family and the Minister of
Health, to submit a specific proposal for a technical and organisational solution to the unification of the
collection of tax and insurance contributions. It defines the conceptual steps and main areas of change in
both the organisations concerned. The purpose of the Concept is to present the draft Reform of Tax and
Customs Administration with a View to Unifying the Collection of Taxes, Customs Duties and Insurance
Contributions, the objective of which is to effect change in the tax and customs administrations so as to
make them more efficient by reducing their own costs, more effective as regards the collection of
government revenue and, at the same time, customer-oriented by simplifying processes and eliminating
excessive red tape and the burden on the part of the payer, but, above all, prepared to assume the role of the
entity for the combined collection of taxes, customs duties and insurance contributions.
With regard to these intentions, the document under submission contains proposed changes to the tax and
customs administration management and organisation system, procedural changes together with their
justification and notification of the concomitant risks. Some points of departure which the Reform follows
53
up and conditions which have to be taken into consideration in the preparation and implementation of the
proposed changes, the implementation plan, estimated impacts and demands on resources with regard to the
anticipated costs and benefits of the Reform, are included in the document.
1 BASIC FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE TAX AND CUSTOMS ADMINISTRATIONS
It should never be assumed that a system will never change. Just like any other system, the tax and customs
administrations1 cannot lag behind in the transformation process, even despite the satisfactory performance
of their roles, as stipulated by law, when they were established. In the light of the crucially important
position of both administrations, which constitute the main agents in securing national budget revenues, it is
crucial that both of them undergo modernisation and thus respond to the diverse economic and social
aspects, changing times and the need to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of their functionality in
performing their statutory roles.
At the moment, traditional principles are still applicable to the tax and customs administrations and they
serve as the main points of departure in the formulation of the draft Reform. They can be summarised in six
basic points which are in compliance with the approach of international organisations, such as the
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (hereinafter “OECD”), The World Bank
(hereinafter “The WB”), International Monetary Fund (hereinafter the “IMF”) and which are observed in
the draft proposal here submitted.
With regard to a representative of classical economics, Adam Smith, it can be stated that basic taxation
principles in the area of tax theory have remained unchanged for 230 years. In his work “The Wealth of
Nations” of 1776, Smith formulated four “maxims” of taxation:
Transparency – “The tax that each individual is obliged to pay should be determined precisely and not
arbitrarily.”
Proportionality – “The subjects of every state ought to contribute towards the support of the government, as
nearly as possible in proportion to their respective abilities; that is, in proportion to the revenue which they
respectively enjoy under the protection of the state.”
Convenience – “Every tax should be collected in a time and manner which are most convenient for the
taxpayer.”
Efficiency – “Every tax should be constructed so as to have citizens pay as little as possible above what the
tax really contributes to the state treasury.”
2 INNOVATION AND INTERCONNECTION OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Information systems and their modernisation represent one of the critical factors and are fundamental to the
successful implementation of the changes proposed in this Concept.
With regard to the formation of the knowledge-based society and competitiveness strategies, utilisation of
the possibilities offered by information and communication technologies plays a crucial role. We consider
the adequate allocation of funds to the informatisation of Financial Administration to be a fundamental
condition for the successful accomplishment of the Reform goal.
The tax and customs administrations have information systems in which the systems primarily supporting
their main processes operate, especially the collection and administration of taxes and customs duties. The
Tax Information System (hereinafter the “TIS”) has been the subject of plans for modernisation for a longer
period of time as, in its current form, it does not meet the set requirements and expectations. An essential
factor is that the situation requires the construction of a brand new Financial Administration information
system which will be based on modern technologies and with a detailed knowledge of all the processes
which it is to support. The new Financial Administration information system will include unification and
support for all the processes within the administration of all taxes, i.e. even those that are currently
supported by the Customs Information System (hereinafter the “CIS”). As a part of the Financial
1
For the purposes of this document, the tax and customs administrations are not to be understood as administrations
under Act 511/1992 Coll. On the Administration of Taxes and Charges and Changes in the System of Territorial
Financial Authorities as amended, but as the institutional framework covering processes carried out by the TD SR and
public service offices of the customs administration.
54
Administration information system, CIS will further focus on the internal integration of all customs agendas
on the platform currently operated, and especially on external integration with other customs
administrations systems in the EU Member States. The third part will be constituted by joint or shared
systems which do not belong to the basic tax and customs systems but which are essential for the
functioning of the tax and customs administration.
The Financial Administration information systems thus formed will be prepared for further functional
extension by the agenda of the collection of insurance contributions assumed from the SIA and the HICs.
However, close integration with these systems already needs to form a part of the building of the Financial
Administration information system. Integration bonds in the area of registers, electronisation and exchange
of documents are crucial. The mutual provision and exchange of data and information with third parties
(e.g. the Supreme Audit Office of the Slovak Republic, the Office of Statistics of the Slovak Republic, etc.)
via information systems is equally important; however, this presumes an appropriate level of IT services
(SOA, WebServices, etc.) on the part of all the other institutions in accordance with the intentions defined
of the Concept and in compliance with the general government informatisation strategy, whilst respecting
the legislative acts in force.
3 OPTIMISATION OF THE MANAGEMENT AND ORGANISATION SYSTEM
Currently, the tax and customs administrations form two separate units in Slovakia. The TD SR and the CD
SR are separate budgetary organisations linked to the budget of the MoF SR to which they are subordinated.
As part of the Reform, the MoF SR began examining the processes performed in both organisations in order
to render more efficient the functioning of both organisations and to enhance their effectiveness in the
performance of their duties ensuing from existing laws and regulations. The proposal under submission for
optimisation of these processes, which transcends the framework of one organisation and proposes the
merging of the tax and customs administrations into one unit, is the outcome of this examination. As these
are organisations which fall within the same Ministry, the merging of the tax and customs administrations
which manage about 81% of the national budget income will enable the MoF SR to optimise the process of
government revenue collection.
8 REGIONAL BRANCHES OF
THE TAX DIRECTORATE
Žilina
Prešov
Trenčín
TAX
DIRECTORATE
B ká B t i
Trnava
Bratislava
Nitra
Košice
Banská Bystrica
TO STP
101 TAX OFFICES
Figure 1 Current tax authorities (source MoF SR)
55
9 CUSTOMS OFFICES
Žilina
CCB
Prešov
Trenčín
Banská Bystrica
Trnava
Košice
Michalovc
e
Customs Directorate
Bratislava
62 CUSTOMS
OFFICE BRANCHES
AND 23 CO POSTS
Nitra
Bratislava
Figure 2 Current customs administration (source MoF SR)
8 FINANCIAL OFFICES
Žilina
Prešov
Trenčín
Banská Bystrica
Trnava
Bratislava
Košice
FINANCIAL
DIRECTORATE OF
THE SR
FOSP
Nitra
FCJA
FINANCIAL OFFICE
BRANCHES AND
FINANCIAL OFFICE
POSTS
Figure 3 Financial Administration – management structure model (source MoF SR)
The proposed merger of the tax and customs administrations enacts outcomes relating to the mutual sharing
of various processes, instruments, best practice, etc., which leads to enhancement of the efficiency of such
an organisation. There may be arguments against the Reform based on the rationale that only the
information systems of the organisations concerned should be interconnected. However, the interconnection
of the information systems does not resolve the substance of the proposed Reform; it merely serves to
ensure communication between the organisations with a minimum impact on the payers and on the
functional efficiency of the individual organisations. From our perspective, this represents only one of the
conditions of the Reform.
56
4 BENEFITS OF THE TAX AND CUSTOMS ADMINISTRATION REFORM
At present, it is not possible to specify quantification of benefits for taxable entities due to the complexity of
the Reform, as well as because of the complexity in quantifying of the costs to individual entities associated
with time and money. Nevertheless, it is important to summarise, at least the most important categories of
savings of time and money for an entity:
 Reduction of administrative burden of tax and customs obligations.
 Time saving for the administration of tax and customs obligations.
 Increased accessibility of tax and customs administration.
 Enhanced user comfort as a result of the automation of fiscal administration.
 Saving costs of bank transaction fees.
 Saving costs of postal charges.
 Saving costs of labour force dedicated to tax and customs obligations.
 Increased availability of funds due to transfer of VAT payments from customs supervision to tax
administration.
An important benefit from the Reform of Tax and Customs Administration will be a reduction in the
administrative costs for tax and customs administration.
One of the areas of cost savings will be the optimisation of job positions, namely by about 20% of
employees. Staff reductions should be completed in stages starting in 2008 through attrition and turnover
from employment of about 2.5% annually through 2010; representing a 7.5% overall reduction of
employees who will not need to be replaced since there will be a gradual improvement in the quality of the
internal operation of the tax and customs administration.
In 2011, the number of employees will be stabilised and they will need to be prepared for the changes in
operation implemented by 01. 01. 2012. In 2012 there will be a reduction of about 2.5% and in 2013
and 2014 there will be an approximately 5% reduction in each of those years. The most important factors
permitting savings in wage costs are the further improvement of informatisation and electronic services by
FA SR, rationalisation of activities and better spatial arrangement of FA SR, and increased productivity and
added-value of employees. The degree of employee reduction is based on the plan of staged
implementation of the reform ideas and reflects gradual attrition as well as other circumstances that can be
combined with this measure. It results from the above, notwithstanding the statement that the Reform will
be implemented by 01. 01. 2012, and subsequently by 01. 01. 2013, that a gradually transition and
successive implementation of respective steps must be ensured in order to accomplish the final objective.
5 RISKS ARISING FROM SPECIFIC PROPOSALS OF CHANGES
 Disability of higher management of Tax and Customs Administrations respectively to find
solutions for joint operations and mutual respect necessary for seamless operations of the new
united institution in order to leave aside particular objectives and focus upon the common
objective.
 Resistance of higher and middle management of the tax and customs administration against the
new organisational structure due to loss of its position or status in the joint institution.
 Disability to provide for efficient “remote control” over employees posted on detached workplaces
of FD SR.
 Reluctance to forego advantages ensuing from the special status of armed unit and reluctance of
some „uniformed“ employees of the financial administration to accept „non-uniformed“ superior
officer, which is the Minister of Finance of SR at present.
 Lack of competent co-ordination concerning presentation of the methodology and team
management of the new institution
 Complicated migration and unification of data banks and creation of individual accounts in case of
high error rate in files and registries.
 Lack of time to perform inspection due to transfer of employees of the inspection to the auditees
 Absence of good quality risk management and inspection planning.
 Lack of administrator I. competence for performance of activities concerning registration.
 Imbalanced burdening of administrator I. in course of the year.
 Loss of complex knowledge of entity by splitting up the agenda among a set of employees.
57



Lack of objectivity of internal performance quality measurement due to unauthorised involvement
of employees.
Inappropriate setting of internal performance quality measurement indicators.
Incorrect configuration of the evaluation system for the introduction of the impartial system of
remuneration.
All risks shall be monitored throughout the whole period of the Reform implementation, measures to
eliminate risks shall be adopted. In case risks arise their impact has to be eliminated in the maximum
possible extent.
CONCLUSION
A concerted effort, in a matter of years, can transform the tax and customs administration into an institution
that would be an example for other general government components as an approach to citizens in which the
financial relationship and its related aspects between citizens and the state will be perceived as a beneficial
partnership for both parties rather than one perceived negatively. In the future that institution will also be
able to assume responsibility and powers in the area of collection of mandatory insurance contributions
from the SIC and from health insurance companies and thus substantially reduce bureaucracy and improve
communication between these organizations by handling the revenue side of the public budget and serving
the citizens.
The benefits of this change should be positively welcomed first of all by citizens and the business
community and, at the end of the day, also by the general government and public administration as a whole.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
[1]
The World Bank Group: Supporting Institutional Reforms in Tax and Customs: Integrating Tax
and customs Administration, 2003
[2]
Tax Administration in OECD Countries: Comparison Information Services, 2006
[3]
PERRY, V.; FULFORD, R.; SOMODI, S. Tax Administration Reform on the Eve of EU
Accession – The Slovak Republic. International Monetary Fund, 2003
[4]
Operational Programme “Informatisation of Society for 2007 – 2013”
[5]
Document “Adjusted Process Model for the Organisational Arrangement of MoF SR and the
Sector – Subproject of TD SR"
ADRESS:
Ing. Juraj DUBOVEC, PhD.
Univerzitná 8215/1
010 26 Žilina, SR
[email protected]
Ing. Vladimíra Hlaváčková
Evropský polytechnický institut, s.r.o.
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice, CZ
[email protected]
58
INNOVATION IN REGIONAL ECONOMICS AND POLITICS
Jaroslav Kavka, Jozef Habánik
European Polytechnic Institute Ltd., Kunovice
Abstract: The papers are thematically directed to the content of the section no.2; Support of
the cross border cooperation and innovative tendencies in regions. The regional economy is
characteristic with interpenetration and active usage of economical, social, political
ecological, technological, innovative and educational tools. While ensuring the increase of the
quality life and living standard it is important to realize that the comparative advantages based
on low cost and low price of labour brings only a short time effects, they explore the rare
sources and the effects disappear very quickly. That is why the comparative advantages
derived on the base of application of the research results, transfer of knowledge into the
practise and innovative potential and capacity ensure competitiveness and sustainability of
economical growth, employment and income base of the economy subjects in the region.
Key words: Innovation, region, regional economy, regional policy, competitiveness, potential.
INTRODUCTION
In the regional economy structure the institutional and organized parts as scientific-technological parks,
clusters, research and development centres, technological incubators and regional innovative centres have
their reason. Depending on the changes in the external and internal social and economical environment
these parts are one of the priorities and at the same time the tool for usage of internal potential in the region,
area, labour forces, sources and technology. The importance of small and medium sized companies acting in
the region and their cooperation with research institution, support of employment and creation of new
effective jobs, innovation and new technology in connection with the development of services in the region
develop and fulfil the aims of the regional economy. Regional policy is implemented on all levels, and it
requires regional development planning many for more years, complementation of tools from the structural
fund of EU with domestic public sources including those which are fiscally decentralized. We understand
the regional policy as integration of internal and external factors and conditions with ensuring the aim of
sustainable economical growth and employment, competitiveness of regions and their innovative potential.
INNOVATIVE SYSTEM IN REGIONAL ECONOMY AND POLICY
Regional policy is more and more moved from the government level to the regional self-government which
enables solution of specific problems on the base of knowledge of specifics and differences. On one hand
this movement weakens coordination of partial politics but on the other hand it enforces building networks
and partnership among the main subjects in the region which play the key role from the regional
development point of view. Mutual cooperation in the framework of municipalities and further institutions,
organizations and firms acting in the area of the region is very important. In Belajove (2005) sense them
main goal of the regional policy is to mitigate the regional differences, correction of production factors
allocation and support of the economical growth in the region.
As given in the publication of the European committee there is a hierarchic structure of three concepts for
innovative system in companies while concentration of mutual cooperating companies in the framework of
the same or similar sectors in a small geographic area is the first hierarchic level. Advanced organized
cooperation among the companies (also on the base of trust, standards and convention) which actively
stimulate innovative activities of companies represents the regional innovative networks as the second
hierarchic level. The hierarchy of the constitution of the innovative system of companies created the
regional innovative system defined as the cooperation among different organization in order to develop
knowledge, innovation and their following enlargement. The mentioned is possible to clarify by the
following scheme – Porter´s model.
59
Challenges and
opportunities
Company’s strategy.
Demand
Diamond framework
Factors for success of
companies
Environment in the
region
Sisters and supporting
firms
Scheme no. 1: Porter´s model of diamond framework.
Source: Ivanička, K., Ivaničková, A.: Regionálny rozvoj a regionálna politika, 2007, str. 169, own treatment
Porter´s model is based on the interconnection of internal factors and conditions with the company strategy
and supporting organizations united in certain element in which specialization, cooperation with production
sphere, research and development and innovations appears.
In connection with the innovative ability of regions the competitiveness enforcement appears. Depending on
the level of equipment of research and development base and new technologies they help to transfer new
notion and migration of qualified labour that is able to generate new values. The specific is the significance
of prospective sector (nano-technology, biotechnology, electronics, car industry, tourism) and its mutual
base in infrastructure, services and information net web. Any system must lean on realistic economic pillar
of the regional economy its dynamic, sustainability and science technical progress. In the opposite case the
lack of sources is compensated by loans, growth of taxes and fees by which the competitiveness of regional
economy disappears.
Innovative policy is thought to be the most important tool for growth and the total dynamic of the
competitive ability of regions, its social and economical development. The development of new
technologies and creation of new jobs of higher quality must be in the front. Regions are then prepared for
competitive load and they have actors and institutions willing to educate themselves in an up to date way
and with these new competences they adapt to expected and unexpected changes.
According to Morgan (1997, p. 149) the new generation of the regional policy is represented by self
learning regions which enables to overcome stereotypes and model the development using innovation which
is in comparison of the classical theory of development a step ahead due to new organization and
technology. The process of learning comprises the local and regional self government, public
administration, institutions acting in the region and it activates internal development potential. The
significant element is the prepared and realized regional innovative strategy which supports creation of
clusters, scientific technological parks and technological incubators in connection with the research
potential of universities in the region. Concepts and strategy which prefer subsidy, tax relief for any cost
and based on new jobs of any quality and structure are in this theory overcome. Such a low cost
environment cannot continuously support meeting the goals of development and competitiveness in the
region. Self learning regions create opportunities for creating the environment of a new high level
60
infrastructure, for increasing added value, qualification and work positions. New infrastructure in the region
is created by cooperation and the results of action of new notion driven by research and technology into the
economy practise.
Regional policy also supports to the development of economical units and that is why the important actors
are government, regional administration and their partner institutions. The importance of universities,
research and development centres, and innovative centres in the regional development is growing. The
main mission of the centres for support of innovation is to be effective interconnection of need of
entrepreneurs and research potential. In separate regions the centres will contribute the social and
economical development through the support of innovation and creation of new innovative products.
CONCLUSION
Competitiveness of regions depends on involvement of structures into the innovative effort directed to
higher added value and internal potential. In the region the characteristic of which is the significant support
for increasing educational level, developing and innovative activities and creation structures of this
dimension resulting in economical growth and employment the sustainable dynamic of development is
ensured.
LITERATURE
[1]
IVANIČKA, K.; IVANIČKOVÁ, A. Regionálny rozvoj a regionálna politika, Bratislava :
VŠEMvs, 2007. 250 s. ISBN 978-80-89143-46-7.
[2]
EUROPEAN COMMISSION: Inovation policy in knowledge based economy. Luxembourg:
EurOp, 2000. 99 s.
[3]
HUDSON, R. The learning econmony, the learning firms and the learning regions a sympathetic
critique of the limits to learning. In: European Urban and regionel Studies, 1999, roč. 6, č. 1. s.
59-72.
[4]
OECD. 1996. The knowledge based economy. Paris: Gweneral distribution, 1996. 46 s.
[5]
OECD. 1999. Up-grading knowledge and diffusion technology in regional context. Paris: General
distribution, 1999. 48 s.
[6]
Porter, M.E. The Competitive Advantage of Nations. New York : The Free Press, 1990. ISBN 002-925361-6.
[7]
BELAJOVÁ, A.; FÁZIKOVÁ, M. Regionálna ekonomika. Nitra : SPU, 2005. 254 s. ISBN 80869-513-X.
ADRESS:
Ing. Jaroslav Kavka
Evropean polytechnical institute, Ltd.
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
Ing. Jozef Habánik, PhD.
Evropean polytechnical institute, Ltd.
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
61
62
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND SPECIFICS OF TRADING COMMODITIES
Ondřej Šabata
Abstract: The aim of this work is the analysis of trading in commodity markets. The first part to
futures contracts which are the essential tool of commodity trading and are so important to
penetrate, understand and gain basic knowledge of trading on commodity exchanges. The final
section a forecast of markets, precious metals and agriculture. Key words: Bourse, article, trading, commodities, futures, speculation, investments, market
This article deals with basic principles ans specifics of trading commodities. In order to undestand this
article it´s important to explain following terms:
Investments in commodity markets is still considered by many to be not very usual. For a long time,
commodity markets are held in the background, muffled in particular, low commodity prices and limited
opportunities for small investors to participate in this market. However, lately the talk about them more
often and become a popular investment opportunity for many investors. Growth in product variety and
popularity of this market is highly democratized, allowing smaller investors to participate in the segment
previously reserved exclusively for corporate clients and large speculators. Ways of contributing to the
global rise in commodity prices is a large amount,as well as the views and opinions on various types of
investment in them. [1, p. 63]
There are many options on the spot and futures markets to take advantage of risik commodity prices. The
main and most widely used in such futures are futures.
The futures contract is an agreement of two parties to buy or sell a certain underlying instrument of a
standardized quantity and quality to a prespecified at a future date, known kontraktním month supply and a
predetermined date. The parties are not able to with draw from the contract. Futures contracts are traded on
public derivative exchanges.
Regardless of the type of investment or commodity contract is important that investors have about your
investment assets as much information as possible and understand this information. Futures are always
standardized. Among futures, there are significant differences that may affect the outcome of investment.
By trading on the futures markets are predicting price movements. Businessman analyzes the markets and
personal discretion, then brings their business decisions and interpretation solution. Dealers must be read
from the market information that allows him to recognize that the groups dominate the market, whether
bulls or bears, examines the power of the dominant group decides the likelihood of prolonging the current
trend and take investment decisions. This judgments merchant's decision can be justified as the opposite
view of another trader. The only evidence of who was right to come back.
The actual trading is quite simple. Once a trader decides that it is good time to buy or sell (using technical or
fundamental analysis), enter the trade position by entering their brokers trading statement. This entry
purchases / sells a selected portion of the money contract. The principle here is like every other business
buy cheap, sell expensive. This principle obtains dealer profit or loss if the market turns in the wrong
direction. The futures trader does not have to wait for a specific market conditions, profits can be achieved
in virtually any market situation, the commodity purchase also sell:
 Speculation on the rise in prices: if in early trade, buying a futures contract, these are called „long“
business. Commodity trader buys a contract, expected therefore, the price of the contract increase.
Profit is achieved when the prices actually rise. To enter a long position trader buy command,
which sends to his brokers. From the point of purchase dealer checks the contract until is not
closed the position by sending a command to sell.
63

Speculating on the price decrease (short selling) futures markets, may trader can profit on declining
markets. If the trader expects that the price of commodity will decline, he may sell the commodity
contract (it is a „short“ trade) and after subsequent price decline to buy it back. The difference
between the sale - the original price and re-purchase - cheaper price is the merchant's profit.
Mechanism this strategy lies in the fact that a trader borrows first such instrument from your broker
as a backup and then sell it (short). Once the price instrument falls, the trader profits, otherwise the
trader experiences and must pay the difference. From this short position the trader performs
repurchase contract to supply the same of commodity in the same month. The contract must also
buy back to the date FND, or assumes an obligation to deliver the appropriate buyer commodity in
physical form. [2, p. 42]
How we can see in the graph, price index is increasing very slowly. Thanks to uncertain behaviour of
financial markets it is possible to forecast an increasing of prices in the future.
Graph nr. 1: Commodity price index
Source: [5]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1]
JÍLEK, J. Finanční a komoditní deriváty. 1. vyd. Praha : Grada, 2002. 623 s. ISBN 80-247-0342-4.
[2]
NESNÍDAL, T.; PODHAJSKÝ, P. Obchodování na komoditních trzích. 2. rozš. vyd. Praha :
Grada, 2007. 200 s. ISBN 80-247-1851-0.
[3]
TUREK, L. První kroky na burze. 1. vyd. Praha : Computer Press a.s., 2008. 154 s. ISBN 978-80251-1915-0.
[4]
WILLIAMS, L. Kompletní průvodce obchodováním komodit. Praha : Centrum finančního
[5]
Kdo táhne cenu komodit na horu, otázka za milion. [online]. 2009. [cit. 2011-1-30]. Dostupné z
WWW: <http://www.investicniweb.cz/fx-komodity/komodity/2011/4/11/clanky/kdo-tahne-cenukomodit-nahoru-otazka-za-milion-zodpovezena/>.
[6]
X-Trade Brokers. Praktické aspekty obchodování. [online]. 2010. [cit. 2010-12-31]. Dostupné z
WWW:
<http://www.xtb.cz/vzdelani/prakticke_aspekty_obchodovani/jak_obchodovat_pomoc_technick_a
nal_zy/technical_12/>.
[7]
Commodity Correlations. [online]. 2009 [cit. 2011-03-15]. Dostupné z WWW:
<http://www.marketoperation.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=121&Itemid
=119&eec86572714ce954078c219351033410=5a548b23da5e0357abe09528ce1c01a5>.
64
CONTACT
Ing. Šabata Ondřej
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
[email protected]
65
66
POSSIBILITIES OF DRAWING FINANCIAL RESOURCES FROM THE EU IN
SOUTH AND CENTRAL MORAVIA
Tibor Hlačina, Jaroslav Kavka, Stanislav Vrba
Evropan Polytechnice Institut, Ltd. Kunovice
Abstract: After entering the European Union the Czech Republic has got the right to gain
money from the structural funds of European community. Structural funds are focused on
lowering the difference in regions and lowering the backwardness of the most discriminated
regions stressing the economical and social relations of European Union. The structural
funds are one of the most powerful tools for regional and structural policy of EU.
Key words: European Union, euroregions, structural funds, structural policy, regional policy,
reduction of differences, level of differences, cross-border cooperation, operation programme,
development plan, sustainable development
DRAWING THE EU RESOURCES FOR THE SUPPORT OF THE SOUTH-MORAVIA AND ZLÍN
REGION.
As a condition to be allowed to draw resources and subsidies from the Structural funds and Cohesion funds
the Czech republic had to work out a document called National development plan (NDP) set for the period
of 2007 - 2013 which will fully comply with new conditions and which has been compiled based on new
information, needs and aims. At the same time besides the NDP there is a Frame of Community support,
which in reality is a contract-character document between the European commission and the Czech
Republic (CR). This agreement binds both parties to provide means for achieving the targets stated in the
Frame of Community support set on the basis of the National development plan.
A detailed description of aims and conditions for drawing the support are specified in the operation
programmes. The CR has identified four sector and one common operation programme.
Besides the Operation programmes, determined by the CR itself within the Community support, there
exist programmes of multinational frame called Community initiatives. These multinational programmes
deal mainly with a question of cross-border cooperation even among distant regions of the EU member
states. One of the programmes proposes to remove differences among citizen groups and thus fight against
various forms of discrimination.
OPERATION PROGRAMMES
In order to implement the Community operation programmes and initiatives the already-mentioned
structural funds are used.
Within the Frame of Community support the Czech republic has four sector operation programmes and one
regional programme - (Common regional operation programme (SROP) prepared.
OP Industry and trading is going to support the development of the entrepreneurial environment, enterprise
in industry and industrial services, increase of the Czech industrial production competitiveness, research and
development in industry and development and increase of the energetic efficiency.
OP Human resource development is going to support a high and quality level of the employment rate based
on qualified and flexible workforce including the integration of groups endangered by social exclusion,
equal opportunities for men and women, development of life education and adaptability of employees and
employers to the changes in economic and technological conditions.
OP Infrastructure is going to support modernizing and development of the transportation infrastructure
within the national importance and reduction of transport’s negative effects on the environment. Further on
67
it is going to support the protection of environment and its elements (water, air and climate, dealing with
waste), protection of nature and countryside and removing of old burdens.
OP Development of countryside and multifunctional agriculture is going to support the development of
regions’ countryside parts, adaptation of the Czech agriculture to the European model, development of
multifunctional agriculture, making the multifunctional role of forests more efficient and development of
water management.
Common regional operations programme is complementary with the operation programmes of the
individual sectors and with the Cohesion fund, it extends their impact onto the local level and focuses on
common development needs of the regions.
CROSS-BORDER COOPERATION OF CR - AUSTRIA
The CR - Austria cross-border cooperation operation programme is determined for the South Bohemia,
South Moravia and Highlands regions, in Austria it is the regions of Waldviertel, Weinviertel, Wiener
Umland Nordteil, Mühlviertel and Vienna city.
It focuses on improvement of transport accessibility of the cross-border regions, environmental protection,
support of cross-border infrastructure and tourism service development, support of education and social
integration, support of cooperation of economical subjects and technology transfers, support of cross-border
cooperation of regional autonomies on both sides of the border.
In case of cross-border operation programmes a cross-border impact, where the contribution from the
project implementation must visibly be present on both sides of the border, is important. Projects must also
include recipients in both countries who cooperate in at least two of the following ways: common
preparation, common implementation, common use of staff and common financing.
The CR - Austria cross-border cooperation operation programme (CR - Austria OP) belongs to regional
operation programmes in the target of the European regional cooperation and there is 107.44 mil € approved
for it from the EU funds. This sum has to be added by 18.96 mil € (cca 1.95 bil CZK) from both Czech and
Austrian national public funds. For the Czech side 69.12 mil € planned from the EU funds, which is about
0.26 % of all the means determined from the EU funds for the Czech Republic.
Public institutions and non-profit organizations are eligible to apply.
The management organ of the CR - Austria OP is an Office of the Lower-Austrian regional government, in
the CR the Ministry of regional development is responsible for it as a national organ. The CR - Austria OP
is financed from the European regional development fund (ERDF).
The CR - Austria OP contains 3 priority axes dividing the operation programme in logical entities and these
are further detailed by the so-called areas of activities which specify what types of projects can be supported
within the appropriate priority axe.
The social-economic development, tourist industry and transfer of knowhow - 51.8 mil €, i.e. 48.2 % of the
CR - Austria OP is determined for the priority axis 1. E.g. strengthening of cooperation between the
regional economy (above all small and middle-sized businesses), universities, research institutions and other
organizations, improvement of availability and usage of actual network of technologies and research and
their extension, improvement of cross-border infrastructure quality and creating of tourist industry service
offer network, reduction of social, educational and qualification systems restrictions, improvement of
women and handicapped groups’ integration, strengthening of workforce and students’ mobility,
improvement of social life in border regions, working out a cross-border programme of social risk
prevention, integrated rescue system and emergency squads in a border region etc.
Regional accessibility and sustainable development - 49.2 mil €, i.e. 45.8 % of the CR - Austria OP is
determined for the priority axis 2. E.g. support of integrated transportation systems and more ecological
transport, use of telematic applications in transportation, support of logistics in combined transportation,
harmonization of SEA regulations, protection from natural catastrophes and reparation of environmental
damages, reduction of environmental pollution and a high dependence on fossil energy, implementation of
environmental management systems, coordinated implementation of the NATURA 2000 conception,
68
support of ecological education and issuing of educational and promotion material, support of cross-border
territorial planning conception, exchange, planning and monitoring of cross-border regional and territorial
systems and aspects etc.
Technical assistance - 6.4 mil €, i.e. 6.0 % of the CR - Austria OP is determined for the priority axis 3.
Financing of the activities connected with the programme management, e.g. salaries of the staff involved in
the CR - Austria OP, choice of projects, monitoring of projects and the programme, providing information
and doing the promotion etc.
CROSS-BORDER COOPERATION OF CR - SLOVAKIA OPERATION PROGRAMME
The Cross-border cooperation of CR - Slovakia operation programme is determined for the SouthMoravian, Moravia-Silesian and Zlín regions in Czechia and Trenčín, Trnava and Žilina regions in
Slovakia.
It focuses on improvement of the transportation availability of the cross-border region, environmental
protection, support of cross-border infrastructure and tourism service development, support of education and
social integration, support of cooperation of economical subjects and technology transfers, support of crossborder cooperation of regional autonomies on both sides of the border.
¨
In case of cross-border operation programmes a cross-border impact, where the contribution from the
project implementation must visibly be present on both sides of the border, is important. Projects must also
include recipients in both countries who cooperate in at least two of the following ways: common
preparation, common implementation, common use of staff and common financing.
The CR - Slovakia cross-border cooperation operation programme (CR - Slovakia OP) belongs to regional
operation programmes in the target of the European regional cooperation and there is 92.74 mil € approved
for it from the EU funds. This sum has to be added by 16.37 mil € (cca 1.95 bil CZK) from both Czech and
Slovak national public funds. For the Czech side 56.55 mil € (about 1.59 bil CZK) planned from the EU
funds, which is about 0.21 % of all the means determined from the EU funds for the Czech Republic.
Public administration, non-profit organizations, economical and agrarian chambers etc are eligible to apply.
The management organ of the CR - Slovakia OP is the Ministry of constructions and regional development
in Slovakia and in Czechia the Ministry of regional development is responsible for it as a national organ.
The CR - Slovakia OP is financed from the European regional development fund (ERDF).
The CR - Slovakia OP contains 3 priority axes dividing the operation programme in logical entities
specifying what types of projects can be supported within the appropriate priority axe.
Support of the social-cultural and economic development of the cross-border region and cooperation - 50.1
mil €, i.e. 54.0 % of the CR - Slovakia OP is determined for the priority axis 1. E.g. development of
common education systems, labour market and social services, development of cross-border cooperation
among the enterprises, research and development institutions, investments in cross-border tourism
infrastructure, support of creating common culture, tourism and traditional craft products etc.
Development of accessibility of the cross-border region and environment - 37.1 mil €, i.e. 40.0 % of the CR
- Slovakia OP is determined for the priority axis 2. E.g. construction of transport infrastructure of regional
and local importance, development of systems for public transportation quality and efficiency improvement,
building the cross-border infrastructure of the environment, natural sources, renewable energy resources and
systems for their quality increase, support of digital content development, development of common systems
of citizens’ protection from natural catastrophes etc.
Technical assistance - 5.6 mil €, i.e. 6.0 % of the CR - Slovakia OP is determined for the priority axis 3.
Financing of the activities connected with the programme management, e.g. salaries of the staff involved in
the CR - Slovakia OP, choice of projects, monitoring of projects and the programme, consultations at the
project preparation, information and promotion activity, activities connected with the preparation for a new
programming period etc.
69
ESPON 2013
The research in the area of territorial planning and regional development will still be supported within the
multinational ESPON 2013 programme (European monitoring network for territorial development and
cohesion). Geographical coverage - all the EU countries. Partner countries (Norway, Switzerland,
Liechtenstein, Iceland).
The management and Certification organ in the programme period of 2007-2013 is the Ministry of Internal
affairs and territorial development in Luxembourg. The coordination unit of the programme is settled in
Luxembourg, too.
Focus of the research programme - due to the fact that one of the aims included in the European constitution
is a territorial cohesion, which requires further knowledge based on research and particular formulations for
its implementation, the ESPON 2013 programme is going to be focused on gradual gathering and updating
of information about the territorial development in order to be able to formulate recommendations based on
the knowledge related to decisions made on the political level. In the future the ESPON programme is going
to have more strategic character. A detailed priority specification will be defined in the Operation
programme.
Preparation of programme documents and programme initiation - due to its international character of this
cooperation just one Operation programme for multinational cooperation has been worked out. This
Operation programme is common for all participating countries.
¨
INTERACT II
The INTERACT II programme is focused mainly on cross-border cooperation as the most financial means
have been determined for it from the Aim 3 (77 %).
The INTERACT II programme has two priorities:
 development and supply of services,
 technical assistance.
The aims of the programme are improvement of cross-border cooperation efficiency, contribution to
territorial cooperation quality and support of cross-border, multinational and interregional programme
implementation, providing of room for the regions to discuss the strategies for cross-border and
multinational regional development and ensuring of innovation transfer.
The emphasis is put on external communication and strengthening of spread of the results achieved. The
source of information and the communication system for the INTERACT II programme is the Internet
database and the Intranet. The INTERACT II programme institutionally cooperates e.g. with the Committee
of regions and with the ESPON and URBACT programmes. There are not any new project implemented
within the INTERACT II programme.
The management structure consisting of the Management organ, INTERACT secretariat, Certification
organ, Monitoring (and managing) committee is kept identical with the INTERACT programme. The EU
member and non-member countries participating in the INTERACT II programme have appointed a
selected person ensuring the run of the National contact place. Newly the INTERACT II programme is
organized by four Work groups. The scope of these work groups is territorially limited, the work groups
ensure activities for cross-border, multinational and interregional cooperation simultaneously. Currently the
work groups are topic-focused.
COHESION FUND
The cohesion fund (CF), unlike the structural funds, serves for the support of development of poorer states,
not regions. Similar to ERDF, it is to support investment (infrastructure) projects, but only focusing on the
transport infrastructure of a larger extent (motorways and 1st class roads, railways, water transportation,
road, railway, river, marine and air traffic management) and the environmental protection.
PROGRAMME OF COUNTRYSIDE DEVELOPMENT
The European agricultural fund for the countryside development has replaced the activity of the European
70
agricultural support guarantee fund which used to belong among the EU structural funds till the end of
previous programme period. The EAFRD means serve to increase competitiveness of agriculture, grocery
and forestry. The environmental projects, newly arising enterprises in the countryside etc will be supported.
The EU puts a bigger and bigger emphasis on the so-called multifunctional agriculture whose significant
part is a focus on the non-grocery use of agricultural production and the countryside development policy.
Group of measures III.2 - Measures for improvement of life quality in the country areas
III.2.1 Renewal and development of villages, civic equipment and services
For the country a different level of equipment, extent and availability of basic infrastructure is typical. Cca
81 % of the communities with up to 2000 inhabitants are connected to the public water main while only 66
% of the communities with up to 2000 inhabitants are connected to the public sewage and only 26 % of
them are connected to the sewage with a sewage treatment plant. Investments to basic water service
infrastructure of the communities with up to 2000 inhabitants (water mains, sewage, sewage treatment
plants - STP) will be supported by a measure. Further on the construction and renewal of local roads for up
to 5 mil, renewal or construction of technical network for up to 5 mil, improvement of municipalities’
appearance - adjustment of public places will be supported. The measure should also ensure increasing of
country inhabitants’ life quality by means of local civic equipment and service improvement in the
municipalities with up to 500 inhabitants.
Construction and reconstruction of municipal water main and sewage network, including the sewage
treatment plants and construction of municipal or group sewage treatment plants and root sewage treatment
plants up to 2000 E.O. in all municipalities in the ZCHU territory will be supported by the Operation
programme called Environment. The Operation programme called Environment will further support the
water management infrastructure in the municipalities with more than 2000 E.O. Regional operation
programmes will deal with the issue of services and basic civic equipment (schools, health facilities etc.) in
the municipalities with more than 500 inhabitants. They will further deal with investments in local roads in
the municipalities with more than 500 inhabitants.
Aims of measures
 Improvement of basic services and development of investment will ensure a higher attraction of
rural areas
 Improvement of rural area life quality
 Improvement of rural area life quality and diversification of economic activities
III.2.1.1 Renewal and development of villages
Investments in basic municipal water management infrastructure (water mains, sewage, STP) and other
technical infrastructure will be supported by the measure. Further on the construction and renewal of local
roads (transportation infrastructure), improvement of municipalities’ appearance - adjustment of public
places and acquisition of territorial planning documentation will be supported.
Determination of supported territories - municipalities with up to 500 inhabitants
 projects of construction and renewal of transportation infrastructure (local roads)
 renewal or construction of technical infrastructure (except for water management infrastructure)
 improvement of municipalities’ appearance - adjustment of public places
 Territorial planning documentation of municipalities with up to 500 inhabitants (agglomerations up
to 2000 E.O.)
 water management infrastructure, STP, sewage
Eligible expenditures
 Construction renewal (reconstruction, modernising, static works) of buildings and areas - or new
constructions connected with water management infrastructure, STP, other technical infrastructure,
transportation infrastructure and adjustment of public places
 purchase of buildings, machinery, technology, facilities, equipment, hardware, software connected
with the project,
 purchase and planting of public greenery, adjustment of municipal parks, purchase of essential
machinery for municipal greenery maintenance,
 processing of municipal territorial planning documentation
71
Form and height of the support - the maximum support level is 90 %. Minimum total eligible expenditures
for the project are 50.000 CZK. The EU contribution is 75 % of the public sources. The CR contribution is
25 % of the public sources.
CONCLUSION
The EU funds represent the main tool of implementation of the European policy of economic and social
cohesion. By their means the finance determined for reduction of economic and social differences among
the EU member countries and their regions are being divided. The policy of economic and social cohesion is
being implemented by means of structural funds and the Cohesion fund. There are two structural funds:
European fund for regional development and European social fund.
The European Union, through its cohesion policy, strives for an even economic and social development of
all its member states and their regions. The aim is to mitigate differences in the living and economic level
among poorer and richer EU countries and at the same time to increase the EU’s ability as an entity to face
the 21st century challenges. On top of the interest, together with the emphasis on sustainable development,
innovations and competitiveness, there stands creating of an open, flexible and cohesive society with a high
employment rate.
The CR has 26.69 bil EUR from the European funds available for the actual program period of 2007 - 2013.
The European fund for regional development is the most important and with the financial amount even
biggest of the structural funds. The most ERDF money goes to improvement of infrastructure, construction
of sewage treatment plants or installation of renewable energy sources are the actual tasks. It focuses on
modernizing and strengthening of the economy. Its means are determined for all three aims of the new 2007
- 2013 programme period. Out of these ERDF programmes it is possible to draw the following financial
means for our region:
 ROP Southeast - it has about 704 mil EUR available, which means 20 bil CZK for the SouthMoravia and Highlands regions for the 2007-2013 financial period. There are 4 priority axes
dividing the programme into logical entities. For a municipality and ?ZŠ? it is possible to draw
from the already mentioned areas of support 1.2 - Development of transportation service and
public transport, area of support 1.4 - Development of infrastructure for motorless transportation,
area of support 2.2 - Development of services in tourism and the area of support 3.3 - Development
and stabilizing of country domiciles.
 OP Transportation - total allocation is 5.774.081.203 EUR. It contains 7 priority axes dividing the
programme into logical entities.
 OP Environment - offers more than 5 bil EUR, it is the second biggest Czech operation
programme. It brings means for the support of particular projects in seven areas. Almost everybody
can apply for contribution for ecological projects within this operation programme.
 OP International cooperation - 321.32 mil EUR are available for it from the EU funds and this
money is supposed to be added by 83.77 mil EUR from the national public sources of the
participating countries. The Czech public sources will share financing of this programme by 0.17
mil EUR. Within the programme there is no specific financial allocation for individual countries.
Two types of projects are carried out: exchange of experience and transfer of experience. All
public organs and institutions in their character equal to public organs are eligible to ask for
financial means from this fund.
 OP Multinational cooperation - belongs to the operation programmes in the aim of European
territorial cooperation and 37.46 mil EUR is determined for the Czech Republic. Public
authorities, institutions in their character equal to public organs, as well as private subjects are
eligible to ask for support.
 Two OPs of CR - Austria cross-border cooperation and CR - Slovakia cross-border cooperation are
determined for the South-Moravian region and Zlín region, too.
The European social fund supports activities in the areas of employment and human resources development
(e.g. re-qualification, education). They achieve their aims for example by strengthening the EU member
states’ social programmes (above all long-term programmes like the active employment support or
reincorporation of long-term unemployed), helping the citizens’ risk groups (young unemployed, healthdisabled), supporting of equal opportunities on the job market and improving the workforce mobility within
72
the EU. In the ESDF there are the following programmes out of which our region can draw the finance:
 OP Human resources and employment – 1.84 bil Eur in total is determined from the EU funds,
except for this the programme financing is supposed to be increased from the Czech public sources
by other 0.32 bil Eur. It is focused on the unemployment reduction by means of active policy on the
job market, profession (vocational) education, also on reincorporation of socially expelled citizens
back to the society, increase of public administration quality and international cooperation in
these above-mentioned areas. Providers of social services, educational and advisory organizations,
employers, state administration organs, regions, municipalities, municipal confederations and their
associations, employment service organs etc. are eligible to apply for the support
 OP Education for competitiveness - 1.83 bil Eur in total is determined, except for this the
programme financing is supposed to be increased from the Czech public sources by other 0.32 bil
Eur. This programme is focused on improving and modernizing of the initiative, tertiary and
further education systems, their interconnection in a complex system of life education, and on
improvement of the conditions in research and development. Schools, school facilities,
organizations active in education and career advisory, science and research institutions, central
state administration organs and organizations managed by them, municipalities, towns/cities,
regions, non-governmental non-profit organizations etc. are eligible to apply for grant.
The European educational programmes are focused on young people’s education, development and
acquiring of basic life experience essential for their personal development. ?ZŠ?, but a municipality as
well, are eligible to draw financial means from the following programmes: Comenius, Leonardo da Vinci,
Grundtvig. However, it is also possible to draw from the Youth in Action programme which is focused on
leisure activities of young people.
SOURCES:
[1]
Fondy EU: Informace o strukturálních fondech [online]. 2008-2009 [cit. 2008-04[2]
Fondy EU: Řízení fondů EU [online]. 2008-2009 [cit. 2008-04-16]. Dostupný na www:
http://www.strukturalni-fondy.cz/getdoc/6fa7277c-ea4f-4521-bbbb-8319e275dad4/Rizeni-fonduEU
[3]
Fondy EU: Regionální politika EU [online]. 2008-2009 [cit. 2008-02-16]. Dostupný na www:
http://www.strukturalni-fondy.cz/Informace-o-fondech-EU/Regionalni-politika-EU
[4]
Fondy EU: Tematické operační programy [online]. 2008-2009 [cit.2009-02-19]. Dostupný na
www:
http://www.strukturalni-fondy.cz/getdoc/cbbd7af9-afef-448c-80301da7e87b4aa7/Tematicke-operacni-programy
[5]
Fondy EU: Operační program Doprava [online]. 2008-2009 [cit. 2009-02-20]. Dostupný na
www:
http://www.strukturalni-fondy.cz/getdoc/b942baff-6b60-4771-8e51-55e093e4605f/OPDoprava
[6]
Ministerstvo dopravy. Operační program doprava [online]. 2008-2009 [cit. 2009-02-20].
Dostupný na www: http://www.opd.cz/cz/Zakladni-informace
[7]
Fondy EU: Operační program Životní prostředí [online]. 2008-2009 [cit.2009-03-19].Dostupný
na www: http://www.strukturalni-fondy.cz/Informace-o-fondech-EU
[8]
Fondy EU: OP Podnikání a inovace [online]. 2008-2009 [cit. 2009-02-02]. Dostupný na www:
http://www.strukturalni-fondy.cz/getdoc/665a13aa-e1ff-484d-ab28-84e90b454c89/OPPodnikani-a-inovace
[9]
Ministerstvo průmyslu a obchodu: OP Podnikání a inovace [online]. 2008-2009
ADDRESS
Ing. Tibor Hlačina
Evropský polytechnický institut,s.r.o.
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
[email protected]
Ing. Jaroslav Kavka
Evropský polytechnický institut,s.r.o.
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
73
[email protected]
Ing. Stanislav Vrba
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
[email protected]
74
COMPUTER PROCESSING OF PORTFOLIOS AND INVESTMENT ON
PORTFOLIOS
Dušan Marček1,2, Marek Horváth3, Lukáš Falát1
1
University of Žilina, Faculty of Management Science and Informatics, Slovak Republic
2
Silesian University, Istitute of Computer Science, Opava, Czech Rpublic
3
European Polytechnical Institure, Kunovice, Czech Republic
Abstract: This paper gives an overview of computer program of compiling the optimal
portfolios and investment on portfolios in the stock exchange, the tools available and the type
of applications/solutions that can be built with this program. It is intended for financial
managers. Readers are assumed to have a wide knowledge of financial theory. If not, you are
referred to the related literature. This paper should give the reader a general overview of
specific menus and functions of program; how solutions should be obtained with this program;
and which skills are required to do so.
Keywords: Portfolio risk, variance market return, risk diversification, unique and market risk,
expected return, risk in investment, market capitalization rate.
1. INTRODUCTION
The paper describes the computer program for compiling an optimal portfolio in the Capital Market and
describes its possibilities and methods. These topics will occupy next section in which we provide a general
overview of the subject. We begin by looking at basic anatomy and the hierarchy of program for investment
on portfolios. We then describe and show the main characteristics of each general menus. Section three
briefly concludes.
2. ANATOMY AND POSSIBILITIES OF PROGRAM
Figure 1 shows the basic anatomy, the hierarchy of a computer program for investment on portfolios. The
program provides five following general menus (see Fig. 1):
 Management of portfolios
 List of portfolios
 Measures of portfolio diversification
 Investment on portfolios
 Stock exchanges and exchange trades
FINANCIAL INVESTMENT ON PORTFOLIOS
MANAG OF P.
PORTFOLIOS
Creating
Updating
View
Deleting
LIST OF PORTF.
Sel. Efficient p.
Risk premium
on stock
Rate of price
Appreciation
Return of
portfolios
SMC to P
MCRCS
Secure
investment
MEAS OF DIV:
PEAS/ES
PD/OP
Portfolio with
min. risk
Market sensitivity
statistics
Forecast of
stock prices
INVM.ON P.
Creating
Updating
View
STOCK EXCHAN.
LIST OF SECUR.
Creating
Updating
View
PRICES
Creating
View
INDEXES
Creating
MDX-UA.SandP
MDX-UC
SIX
AD-LINE
View
Numerical
Graphic
Updating
Figure 1 The basic anatomy and hierarchy of program for investment on portfolios
75
Next chapters describe the main characteristics of each general menus.
MANAGEMENT OF PORTFOLIO
The management of portfolios gives users the ability to create, modify and manipulate portfolios.
The management of portfolios is one of the basic parts of the program. In this part all portfolios are created
and compiled and are worked with further, e.g. market portfolio, passive and active portfolio and
correlations between each pair of stocks also enter here. The basic tables for creating, manipulation and
updating of a single portfolio on stock are pictured in table 1. The users just have to fill boxes, as shown in
table 1. The variance, risk, stock's sensitivity to changes, the value of the market portfolio (beta coefficients)
and expected returns of portfolio are also calculated here.
The correlation matrix will be automatically displayed in portfolios are created, modified or it can be reused
for new portfolios (see table 1).
LIST OF PORTFOLIOS
If portfolios are created, their attributes can be used to display and to describe various lists of portfolios.
In this submenu there are calculated, displayed or printed various lists and characteristics of portfolios. E.g.:
 Forecasting of stock prices
 Finding efficient portfolios
 Risk premium on stock
 Rate of price appreciation (alpha)
 Returns of portfolios
76
Table 1 illustrates and shows the attributes and properties, values of portfolio and correlation matrix of
which can be added overwritten or overrided.



A stock's margin contribution to portfolio rise and market capitalization contributions for common
stock
Secure investment
Market sensitivity statistics
Forecasting of stock prices
In this submenu the stock price forecasts are calculated. The submenu provides possibility to calculate
forecasts using the three following methods:
 Correlations analysis
 Risk-taking - Gambling methods
 Substantive analysis
Finding efficient portfolios
In this submenu the capital - rationing problem is solved. The submenu generates the set of efficient
portfolios. This submenu can be in general used in combination with tools for quadratic programming. It is
supposed that tasks for quadratic programming are separate tools and are not built into the procedures.
FORECAST OF STOCK PRICES
No. of Portfolio: 451
PF Name: ACTIVE
Date: 02/02/08
SECURITY NAME
MIN.
EXPECTED
MAX.
Davex Dren, Inc.
1321.8
1323.3
1389.2
Ecatis Bren, Inc.
1303.3
1305.1
1377.2
Forum Blava, Inc.
708.1
709.1
752.4
Macittor, Inc.
1508.9
1511.0
1612.8
Tirana Talin, Inc.
1635.3
1637.6
1767.3
Ural Orp, Inc.
748.7
749.8
813.7
Radon AFC, Inc.
248.4
248.7
267.0
Table 2 illustrates the using of a computer program which calculates
stock prices forecasts on the base of Risk-taking - Gambling
methods.
Risk premium on stock
77
The submenu calculates and shows all risk premium on stock, which are included into portfolios.
Rate of price appreciation
In this submenu all rates of price appreciation for chosen portfolio are calculated and displayed.
Return of portfolios
The submenu provides following main functions:
 browse functions each portfolio in the database
 multi-pane window with information about the attributes of portfolios
 assigned attributes that were calculated using the market sensitivity statistics
A stock's margin contribution to portfolio rise and market capitalization contributions for common stock
/SMC to P, MCRCS/
The submenu provides beta values and expected portfolio return
Secure investment
As explained in the previous chapter, program provides various attributes of stocks to create optimal
costumers portfolios. This submenu provides portfolio attributes for financial managers with possibility to
select a portfolio of projects offering the minimum risk for the maximum return.
Market sensitivity statistics
Submenu is suited especially for investment community. Table 3 shows the screen output from this
submenu.
As shown in table 3, market sensitivity statistics is similar to the table 9-2 in [1]. Unlike the table 9-2, betas,
alphas and returns on the data based on particular market days are estimated and predicted here. For more
information see also [1].
MEASURES OF PORTFOLIO DIVERSIFICATION
Two measures of diversified portfolios are calculated and displayed in this submenu:
 The number of shares in a portfolio that has equal amounts invested in each share (PEA/ES)
Continued
78
Table 3 illustrates information which is interesting for investment communities


The variance of the returns on our portfolio (FD/OP)
Investment shares on out portfolios that would have minimum risk Investment shares on out
portfolios that would have minimum risk are also recalculated and displayed here.
INVESTMENT ON PORTFOLIOS
This procedure gives recalculation of financial characteristics. The output from this procedure is identical
with the output in the upper part of the table 1. It also enables variant investment on portfolios with lending
and borrowing.
STOCK EXCHANGES AND EXCHANGE TRADES
Submenu extends the program functionality. The submenu is the central part of the program. This submenu
individually and in combination with submenus MANAGEMENT OF PORTFOLIOS and LIST OF
PORTFOLIOS, enables financial managers to build highly integrated solutions. This submenu supports
feature such as values of securities.
With this submenu it is possible to add, delete, change or display attributes of securities, add and display
new prices, calculate, display and draw market indexes. Values of stocks that have been modified or added
must be defined again on other submenus. Besides that, the submenu provides the following functions:

Creating, editing and showing each stock in the database
 Modifying the stock attributes assignment for new trade day
 Add new stock prices
 Calculating or recalculating market indexes
 Add, delete or modify methods of market indexes calculating
This submenu with function Market sensitivity statistics generates source risks, betas, alphas and returns
values of stock, which can be included (default) or overwritten in an application. In Figure 2 function
INDEXES - Graphs have plotted the examples of MDX-UC, S&P and AD-Line indexes from four stock
exchanges.
79
Figure 2 illustrates various graphs of market indexes
3 CONCLUSION
The program was implemented in Clipper on IBM-PC. Finally, we can say that this program can provide
useful service for financial managers. Its algorithms can be also used in analysis of return discounting and a
substantive analysis of shares in the stock exchange. Users work with the program in interactive mode
(typically real time generation of various stock exchanges reports and characteristics of portfolios). We
think that this computer program improves financial decisions especially for small businessman, but doesn't
replace them.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the grant Vega VEGA 1/0667/10.
REFERENCES:
[1]
BLACK, F., SCHOLES, M.: The Pricing of Options and Corporate Liabilities. Journal of
Political Economy, 81 (May - June 1973), pp. 637 - 654
[2]
BREALEY, R.; MYERS, S.: Principles of Corporate Finance. International Student edition
(1984)
[3]
KESTER, W., C.: Today's Options for Tomorrow's Growth. Harward Business Review, 62
(March - April 1984), pp. 153 - 160
[4]
HULL, J.: Options, Futures and Other Derivate Securities. Prentice - Hall, Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, N. 3
[5]
MARCEK, D., SLAMKOVÁ, E.: Use of a portfolio theory in estimation of risk for options.
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, 2nd Scientific Conference, Žilina, (March 1995), pp. 97 - 99
[6]
MARCEK, D.: Estimation and Forecasting the Portfolio Risk and Portfolio Return on PC.
Conference INFORMATIKA'95, STU Bratislava, High Tatra, April 24.- 26., 1995
[7]
MARCEK, D.: Investment on Capital Market. XII. International Conference-PRORAIL'95,
Žilina, (October 4. - 6. 1995), pp. 25 - 30
[8]
MERTON, R.,C.: On Estimating the Expected Return Market. Journal of Financial Economics, 8,
(December 1980), pp. 323 - 361
[9]
NICKEL, S.,J.: The investment Decision of Firms. James Nisbet, Waluyn (1978)
[10]
STATMAN, M.: How Many Stocks a Diversified Portfolio. Journal of Financial and Quantitative
Analysis (March - April 1984), pp. 153 - 160
80
ADRESS:
Dušan Marček
Silesian University,
Istitute of Computer Science, Opava,
Czech Rpublic
University of Žilina,
Faculty of Management Science and Informatics,
Slovak Republic
Marek Horváth
European Polytechnical Institure,
Osvobození 699
68604 Kunovice, Czech Republic
Lukáš Falát
University of Žilina,
Faculty of Management Science and Informatics,
Slovak Republic
81
82
THE IMPACT OF FINANCIAL SITUATION ON COMPANY INVESTMENTS
Miloš Majerník, Miroslava Lovichová
Abstract: Investment means rational allocating of money funds both inside of company, also in
its economic surroundings. The aim of this article is to determine how the company financial
situation impacted the development and structure of investments in the selected group of
agricultural enterprises in the west Slovakia region. There were identified five main factors
which significantly impacted the level of agricultural enterprises investments during the
analyzed period: net cash flow, profit, subsidies, bank credits, depreciation. There was not
significant impact of company financial situation at investment activity given by chosen
financial analysis index.
Key words: Financial situation, Investment, Company, Financial analysis.
INTRODUCTION
An important factor influencing economy of production and competitiveness of the companies is investment
activity. Investment activity gives rise not only to enhanced production, but especially provides the
necessary qualitative changes in the structure of tangible and intangible assets. And despite increasing
capital intensity and thus by substitution work of growing capital and labour productivity, investment
activity is conditional on maintaining and possibly the creation of jobs in the company.
Investing ensure economic growth and the business sector, whilst still places greater emphasis on its
sustainability, which in addition to creating higher profits and revenues means that investments should lead
to improving the interaction of humans with the environment and contribute to the mitigation of social
inequalities. Investment activity is principally dependent on the availability of own or foreign sources of its
financing with transformation of economic and property holding restricts both groups of these funding
sources.
AIM, MATERIAL AND METHODS
The aim of this paper is to determine the impact of the financial situation of the company on its investment
activity as well as to identify the factors that determined the most prominent development investments and
their funding sources in the selected file farms in the Slovak Republic, which were included in the
questionnaire research on a random basis from business of the west-Slovakia region.
Using the methods of regression and correlation analysis, we estimate the dependence between selected
financial indicators and an indicator of investment represent volume per 1 ha of farmland. Selected set
constituted 87 holdings, which are situated on the territory of Trenčín, Nitra and Trnava region. Their
numbers were: 62% and 33.3% of cooperatives liability companies restricting and 4.7% equity firms.
FIRST ASSESSING THE FINANCIAL SITUATION OF ENTERPRISES
To assess development of the financial situation of farms we have used a group of selected indices of
financial analysis, the ex-ante, whose average values are shown in Table 1 Average values of indices of the
financial analysis were calculated as a weighted arithmetic average of the values of individual enterprises,
where the weight, the total capital of the firm. Relative abundance of undertakings belonging to the group in
question as defined in the methodology of selected financial indices of ex-ante analysis are shown in the
Table 2
On the basis of the average values of indices of financial ex-ante analysis can identify companies that file a
financially stable, although based on the values of each index can arrive at somewhat different conclusions.
Based on the values of Altman, Z-score was analysed a set of business on the border between the healthy
financial situation and the status when the capacity index is indifferent. During the period of increased
83
proportion of enterprises belonging among financially healthy firms by about 5%, but on more than half of
enterprises were found in the zone of indifferent capability index.
Based on the average of the index credit score, the financial situation of enterprises described as good in the
second half of the period analysed, because up to 64% of enterprises in 2006 found in his, at least in good
financial position, while the proportion of such enterprises has been steadily increasing.
Based on the values of the CH-index, however, businesses throughout the reporting period were among
firms with slack year except 2006, when as a whole were among flourishing businesses and value of the
CH-index gradually reaching less unfavourable values. Number of booming business during the analysis
period more than doubled. Under the G-index values were among companies throughout the period
analysed between slack business, with no farm did not belong among the booming businesses.
Chart 1 Financial analysis ex-ante – Development of indexes
Index FA
Z - coefficient
Bonita index
CH - index
G - index
Index IN 95
Index IN 99
Index IN 01
2000
2,238
0,976
-12,253
-0,882
1,949
0,460
1,012
2001
2,489
1,557
-4,296
-0,820
2,678
0,556
1,212
2002
2,367
1,302
-4,292
-0,840
2,081
0,479
1,039
2003
2,269
0,235
-14,033
-1,042
0,775
0,315
0,720
2004
2,422
1,622
-0,077
-0,868
2,436
0,524
1,180
2005
2,386
1,304
-3,694
-0,903
1,852
0,459
1,029
2006
4,237
1,629
14,203
-0,870
2,032
0,482
1,070
Source: M. Majernik
Based on values of financial distress we know so-called credit: IN95 there is possible to make the inclusion
of the business with the exception of 2003 between the stable and financially healthy companies with the
ability to meet its obligations, although in 2000 and 2005 the average index value for the required IN95
value of 2, but to her approaching and share very stable and financially healthy businesses exceeded the
proportion of enterprises in bad financial situation. 2003 was very typical trend by destroying of Increasing
Financial situation analysed businesses that given year based on the index value IN95 are among companies
with inadequate capacity to meet its obligations, while the share of enterprises in bad financial situation in a
given year doubled compared to 2002, in again next year even more decreased. The adverse financial
situation in 2003 also confirms the biggest difference of receivables and payables overdue, which just this
year amounted to 350 € against overdue receivables, which was partly influenced by the worse climatic
conditions in a given marketing year. Given the revised index weights IN95 with respect to their importance
in achieving positive values economic profits arise of financial distress index - ownership: IN99, whereby
already analysed the business population does not value, and negative values and economic gain to more
than 70% of companies included in this category. Based on the average composite index of financial
distress - the vast IN01 some holdings located in the grey zone in which businesses do not value or they do
not go down, the so-called creditworthiness of an entity not forming value and frequency of these
enterprises had a downward trend for growth of the firms making up the value.
As mentioned in the index for IN95 and the other two indices of Neumaier identified in 2003 as a period
when there was a significant and sudden deterioration in the financial situation of the analysed companies,
as confirmed by the decrease in average values of those indices and the growth of the firms belonging to the
poor or slack businesses. Na basis of expenditure of the financial analysis of the business was, essentially,
all indices identified in 2003 as the period in which the deteriorated financial situation of the analysed
companies, which highlights the impact of natural and climatic conditions on their financial situation and,
consequently, investment activity and confirms the existence of systemic risk in the agricultural sector and
its impact on farm management.
Chart 2 Relative numbers of companies based upon indexes in financial analysis ex-ante.
Altman´s Z-coefficient
Companies/year
Financial healthy
Indifferent
value
of
companies
Critical financial situation
Bonita index
Companies/year
extreme
good
financial
situation
Very good financial situation
Good financial situation
Specific financial situation
2000
17,20%
2001
26,40%
2002
20,70%
2003
24,10%
2004
23,00%
2005
25,30%
2006
31,00%
49,40%
33,30%
49,40%
24,10%
60,90%
18,40%
51,70%
24,10%
66,70%
10,30%
55,20%
19,50%
51,70%
17,20%
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
4,6%
14,9%
19,5%
31,0%
6,9%
24,1%
29,9%
25,3%
2,3%
23,0%
28,7%
34,5%
3,4%
8,0%
21,8%
25,3%
10,3%
19,5%
41,4%
23,0%
10,3%
18,4%
26,4%
29,9%
16,1%
19,5%
28,7%
20,7%
84
Bad financial situation
25,3%
11,5%
Very bad financial situation
3,4%
0,0%
Extreme
bad
financial
situation
1,1%
2,3%
CH - index
Companies/year
2000
2001
Well running
21,8%
37,9%
Average running
26,4%
21,8%
Bad or no running
51,7%
40,2%
G - index
Companies/year
2000
2001
Well running
0,0%
0,0%
Average running
35,6%
39,1%
Bad or no running
64,4%
60,9%
Index: IN 95 = Index of financial distress
Companies/year
2000
2001
Financial healthy -stability
47,1%
66,7%
Risky – similar problems
11,5%
10,3%
41,4%
23,0%
Index IN 99 = Index financial distress
Companies/year
2000
2001
Positive economic profit
1,1%
2,3%
Early value
2,3%
0,0%
Impossibility to create value 1,1%
4,5%
No early value
9,2%
12,5%
Negative economic profit
86,2%
80,7%
Index IN 01 = Index of financial distress - combine
Companies/year
2000
2001
Value creating
24,1%
29,9%
value but without value
35,6%
46,0%
bankruptcy
40,2%
24,1%
10,3%
1,1%
16,1%
16,1%
4,6%
1,1%
12,6%
1,1%
9,2%
4,6%
0,0%
9,2%
0,0%
1,1%
1,1%
2002
34,5%
17,2%
48,3%
2003
25,3%
13,8%
60,9%
2004
42,5%
16,1%
41,4%
2005
43,7%
12,6%
43,7%
2006
46,0%
14,9%
39,1%
2002
0,0%
32,2%
67,8%
2003
0,0%
26,4%
73,6%
2004
0,0%
28,7%
71,3%
2005
0,0%
35,6%
64,4%
2006
0,0%
35,6%
64,4%
2002
58,6%
17,2%
24,1%
2003
37,9%
10,3%
51,7%
2004
71,3%
11,5%
17,2%
2005
56,3%
12,6%
31,0%
2006
64,4%
13,8%
21,8%
2002
0,0%
3,4%
2,2%
19,1%
75,3%
2003
1,1%
1,1%
2,2%
10,1%
85,4%
2004
0,0%
3,4%
4,6%
17,2%
74,7%
2005
1,1%
2,3%
2,3%
18,2%
76,1%
2006
2,3%
2,3%
6,8%
15,9%
72,7%
2002
25,3%
51,7%
23,0%
2003
13,8%
32,2%
54,0%
2004
31,0%
52,9%
16,1%
2005
27,6%
43,7%
28,7%
2006
39,1%
40,2%
20,7%
Source: M. Majerník
Second Impact of the financial situation of enterprises in investment activity
From the file specified financial indices ex-ante analysis, we selected the CH-index and index IN01, which
divided the set of analysed companies for approximately equal-sized groups. These indices were used for
the breakdown of the business into three groups based on their evaluation methodology of the financial
situation of farms to verify the impact of the financial situation of the undertaking on the amount of the
investment. The amount of investment in each business group has over the years from 2000 to 2006 was
compared by analysis of variance (ANOVA).
On the basis of the results ANOV-y was found difference in the volume of investments per hectare of
agricultural land between different groups of businesses, which documents the table showing the third The
volumes of investments are characterized by high variability in all three business groups throughout the
period analysed. Based on the average values of individual investment enterprise groups, however, be noted
that these indices are not a suitable tool for the identification and classification of enterprises according to
the amount of the investment calculated on a hectare. The largest volume of investments made by
businesses located both in the index or middle grey zone, thus not forming creditworthiness of an entity
according to the value index in 01 enterprise in terms of average or CH-index. Then it follows a group of
non-running businesses seeking bankruptcy and paradoxically profitable firms constituting the value
reached by those indices the lowest volume of investment. It therefore follows that the financial situation of
enterprises provided above index is also a relevant factor determining the amount of the investment
activities of the undertakings. Enterprises which were evaluated according to the selected index as slack or
implement a larger volume of investments for the development of their products and maintain its existence
as businesses that was financially sound and stable.
Chart 3 Average level of investment in single company groups according to the Chand IN 01 indexes.
CH-Index Inv Sk/ha
p.p.
Well
running
businesses
Average businesses
Businesses with no
running
Testing criteria
Reliability of test
Indicator/year
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
average
average
5 555,92
6 261,10
6 144,96
4 098,38
7 345,09
4 406,63
5 504,74
3 684,38
6 632,63
12 220,96
6 706,46
10 775,09
6 366,55
20 229,22
average
F
P value
4 395,14
0,520
0,598
6 617,57
0,340
0,716
8 843,03
0,270
0,764
10 884,37
0,360
0,701
3 562,18
2,860
0,063
7 042,04
1,220
0,299
5 488,82
2,320
0,105
85
IN 01 Inv Sk/ha p.p.
Well-running
businesses
Average businesses
Businesses with no
running
Testing criteria
Reliability of test
Indicator/year
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
average
average
6 421,25
5 413,44
7 704,86
5 258,27
5 518,98
9 349,20
4 785,24
14 614,13
4 930,27
5 677,54
6 329,81
7 255,20
5 262,25
12 188,52
average
F
P value
2 638,28
2,260
0,111
5 108,86
0,760
0,469
6 155,10
0,440
0,649
5 377,30
0,830
0,441
11 136,76
1,350
0,266
8 587,53
0,500
0,606
5 091,68
1,020
0,364
Based on the selected indices, we also consider the level of net cash flow and profits of individual groups of
companies where we found that the index is able to demonstrate IN01 companies divided by the amount of
profit. According to both indices reached the largest volume of profit and net cash flow of a group of
prosperous businesses. The conclusion can be stated that the biggest investment projects undertaken
companies which did not belong, or between mature, but businesses that reached in these variables mean
values, in order to maintain their long-term survival and market.
Based on these indices, we also evaluated the impact of the financial situation of the holding structure of the
sources of financing their investments. Source of investment in individual groups of undertakings during the
period were compared by analysis of variance (ANOVA), with no sources of funding in the structure of
investment was based on the results ANOVA-s found significant difference. Table 4 shows the evolution of
the share of internal resources for financing investment. Share of different sources of financing investments
are characterized by high variability from internal sources, which the variability in all groups of enterprises
reached moderate levels.
Based on average values of individual sources of funding for investment can be concluded that a thriving
and prosperous businesses are characterized by a slightly higher share of internal resources to finance their
investment projects in comparison with other groups of enterprises. Conversely companies slack or
bankruptcy used increasingly to finance their investments just bank loans, which confirms the ability of
creditworthy company makes a profit and to a lesser extent from foreign sources of funding. Grants as a
source of financing investment in the fullest possible use of average businesses located in the grey zone of
the two indices, which suggests that the provision of farm subsidies directly linked to their financial
situation. A significant difference was found in the use of leasing as a source of investment funding between
the prosperous businesses and other groups of enterprises according to both indices. The average share of
the lease is to achieve double the value of a typical undertaking bad-running than going concerns and an
increasing trend in the proportion of leasing in the financing of investment is confirmed by all groups of
businesses. Also possible to conclude that the deteriorating financial situation defined a given index is
declining self-financing investment and increase foreign sources of funding for investment in the form of
bank loans, but especially by means of leasing, which also confirms the greater credit constraints and less
creditworthy bad-running undertakings mainly characterized by a loss management.
Chart 4 Average numbers of internal financial sources in single company groups according to the indexes
CH and IN 01 and numbers of testing criteria.
CH-Index Internal sources (%)
Well-running business
Average businesses
Bad or no running businesses
Testing criteria
Test reliability
Index IN 01 Internal sources (%)
Well-running businesses
Average businesses
Bad running businesses
Testing criteria
Test reliability
Indicator/year
average
average
average
F
P - value
Indicator/year
average
average
average
F
P - value
2000
64,83
58,86
75,45
1,870
0,162
2000
69,92
62,05
85,31
4,440
0,015
2001
70,18
73,21
64,35
0,480
0,624
2001
72,43
66,06
63,80
0,460
0,630
2002
64,49
83,97
61,66
2,020
0,140
2002
68,26
66,29
57,81
0,490
0,613
2003
65,87
79,15
70,26
0,580
0,563
2003
80,21
63,26
72,16
1,270
0,285
2004
69,10
50,07
67,67
1,920
0,153
2004
77,54
57,06
70,63
3,820
0,026
2005
65,39
40,66
53,73
2,830
0,065
2005
67,65
56,31
48,10
2,150
0,123
2006
65,84
65,72
55,64
0,940
0,397
2006
71,21
54,62
58,38
2,280
0,109
The volume of investment holdings also very significantly affects the amount of subsidies flowing into
agriculture resort posed to non-repayable foreign holdings source of financing, net cash flow as the
difference between revenues and expenses and profits of the enterprise as a core objective of business
activities that increase a sense of investment activities and business ensure the maintenance of long-term
competitiveness of the enterprise market as well as labour productivity growth, since it allows the
transformation of new scientific and technological knowledge into practice.
Other important factors affecting the volume of investment holdings includes depreciation, which, although
86
not for the enterprise newly established funding sources, but provides resources to finance the reproduction
of fixed assets in the enterprise. It should be noted that the rise in fixed assets in relation to inflation,
depreciation does not provide full funding for restoration of decommissioned fixed assets holdings,
suggesting that the reproductive effects of depreciation reaches a relatively low level. In terms of cash
flows, however, often represent a major depreciation, while a steady income - a source of internal financing.
Depreciation for the enterprise represents a cost, but also not to the establishment and the actual cash
expenditures, while their height depends on the degree of efficiency of business operations.
The level of investment activity also affects the ability of farms to use its funding to foreign sources,
particularly bank loans, which represent the dominant source of financing for their foreign investments.
Availability of bank credit for agricultural enterprises along with the price of resources for which the
enterprises can borrow these loans, is another important source of influencing the volume of investments
made.
CONCLUSION
The financial situation of enterprises provided financial analysis of the selected index ex-ante is also a
determining appropriate instrument and the amount of the investment activities of the undertakings.
Businesses which were evaluated on the basis of selected indices as slack or larger volume of investment
made in the development of its activities and maintain its existence as enterprises which are financially
sound and stable.
The volume of investment holdings is determined by a number of other factors, the most important of which
include: funding - non-repayable funding source, depreciation - a source of financing and the availability of
bank loans.
Creditworthy businesses are characterized by a slightly higher share of internal resources to finance their
investment projects in comparison with other groups of enterprises. On the other hand slack companies
enjoy a greater extent to finance their investments such bank loans, which confirms the ability of
creditworthy company makes a profit and so to a lesser extent from foreign sources of funding.
LITERATURE
[1] Annual reports of the analysed companies, 2000-2006
[2] SERENČÉŠ, P. – MAJERNÍK, M. 2009. Investičná činnosť poľnohospodárskych podnikov a jej
financovanie nástrojmi kapitálového trhu. Nitra: Slovenská poľnohospodárska univerzita v Nitre. 95 s.,
ISBN 978-80-552-0271-6 (vedecká monografia)
[3] BIELIK, P. et al. 2003. Trh cenných papierov a jeho vplyv na výkonnosť a konkurencieschopnosť
agropotravinárskych podnikov. Nitra: Slovenská poľnohospodárska univerzita v Nitre, 145 s. ISBN 808069-293-9
AUTHORS
Ing. Miloš Majerník, PhD.
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
Ing. Miroslava Lovichová
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
87
88
MATHEMATICAL ELEMENTS IN ECONOMIC AND MATHEMATICAL
APPLICATIONS
Daniela Hricišáková, Dagmar Vacková, Jitka Jablonická, Iva Jevčáková
Abstract: The world of finance is very large, complex, and dynamic and it varies in time. We
do not know the simple advice for depositing our money, or lending it under advantageous
conditions. It is possible to learn the right way of thinking in financial terms and behave and
treat people in an economic way.
Key words: Simple Interest Rate, Compound Interest, Arithmetic and Geometric Progression
INTRODUCTION
The economic theory also uses information from other, especially technical, sciences. It looks for solution
how to meet needs, at the same time there is an assumption of rational behaviour of people, when meeting
their needs.
Microeconomics explains the process of creating products and services, it explores the composition of
expenses, sales process, methods of price creation, appropriation of the profit, etc.[4] Economic decisions
and activities are performed everyday, even if you do not realize it. For the right orientation it is important
to recognize the economic terms and categories, e.g. the capital, interest, profit, price, etc. [2].
Let us introduce some basically known financial mathematical terms. The interest is paid in connection with
lending and borrowing money. It is paid by a borrower, debtor over a period of the interest persistence. It
may be characterized as the price of money usage. [3]. Annual interest rate is a proportion of the annual
interest from the lent material. The annual interest rate is denoted as p.a.(per annum), which means „ for one
year“. The interest rate tax is the percentual part of the interest rate, the amount of which is stated for all
deposit products by the state and it is delivered to the state budget.
The standard is 30E/360(every month has 30 days, the year means 360 days).
The standard 30E/360 is applied in all the introduced Mathematical formulas.
n
t
i
k
the number of interest periods
the number of days of the interest periods
the interest rate expressed in decimal numbers
the taxation ratio – tax coefficient
Simple interest rate
U n = K 0 ki
t
n
360
t 

K n = K 0 1 + ki
n
360 

Compound interest rate
n
t 

K n = K 0 1 + ki

360 

n


t 
U n = K 0 1 + ki
  1
360 


89
K
0
the deposit( deposited capital),
U
n
the interest after taxation at the end of the n-th taxation period,
K
n
the final capital at the end of the n-th taxation period.
1. ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION AND SIMPLE INTEREST RATE
The function, the definition limit of which is the system of all natural numbers N, is denoted as an infinite
progression. It is denoted a1 , a 2 ,....., a n ,...., or
an n=1 .
The progression is defined if we know the form of its n-th member for every natural number.
The progression
an n=1
is called an arithmetic progression if there is such a number d that the formula, is
valid for every natural number. a n+1 = a n + d .
The number d is denoted as the difference of the arithmetic progression.
Thus the progression
an n=1
is arithmetic only if the difference of 2 neighboring members is constant,
d = a n+1  a n .
Properties of an Arithmetic Progression:
 the nth member of the arithmetic progression is defined by the relation a n = a1 + (n  1 )d

the formula a r = a s + (r  s)d is valid for optional 2 members a1,a2 of the arithmetic
progression

the formula s n =
n
a1 + a n  is valid for the sum of the 1st n members of the ap.
2
Interest Period
It is the time period between 2 immediately following interest periods. It can be performed yearly, halfyearly, quarterly, monthly, daily, etc.
Simple Taxation
It is such a way of interest rate, where the interest rate at each interest period is calculated from the initial
capital.
Example
The capital K0 with the rate of interest i (expressed by a decimal number), the taxation coefficient is k was
deposited in a bank. The bank uses the standard 30E/360.
The interest period is t days, the amount of interest periods is n. The interest rate is always counted of the
initial capital K0, so this is the simple interest rate.
You define:
1. The total amount of interest rate after taxation at the end of the n interest period.
2. The total amount which the capital K0 increases up till end n of the interest period, ie.after n enters
of interests.
Solution
1. The rate of interest Un after taxation at the end of the nth interest period is by simple interests the n
multiple of the interest after the taxation for 1 interest period:
U n = U 1n
thus
U n = ki
t
K0n
360
90
2. The total amount K0 at the end of the nth interest period is the summary of K0 and Un:
K n = K 0 +U n
or
t 

K n = K 0 1 + ki.
n .
360 

Example
The interest rate for the capital 1000€ is calculated once a year, the rate of interest is 1%, it is a simple
interest, the interest tax amounts 15%.
1. You draw the first 5 members of the progression which expresses the dependence of the total
interest amount after taxation on the number of years since the deposit of money.
2. You demonstrate that the progression from 1 is arithmetic.
3. You demonstrate that the progression expressing the dependence of the total amount of the capital
on the number of years since the money deposit is also arithmetic.
Solution
1. You make use of the formula for Un
U n = ki
t
K0n
360
in this case it is k = 0,85, i = 0,01, t = 360, K 0 = 1000 €
U n = 0,85.0,01. 1000 € .n = 8,50 € .n
You enter the 1st five members of the progression Un into the chart
Amount of years
1
2
3
4
5
Interest after taxation (€)
8,5
17
25,5
34
42,5
45
40
Interest after taxation (€)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Amount of years
2. The first member of the progression Un is
U 1 = 8,50 € ,
every other member is by 8,50 € bigger than the previous one.
It is an arithmetic progression with the first member 8,50 € with the difference 8,50 €.
91
3. The progression expressing the dependence of the total capital amount on the number of years having
passed since the deposit is acquired from the equation
t 

K n = K 0 1 + ki
n
360 

t
K n = K 0 + ki
K0n
360
K 0 = 1000 € , k = 0,85, i = 0,01, t = 360 :
Thus
Thus
K n = 1000€ + 0,85 . 0,01 . 1000€ . n = 1000 € + 8,50 € .n
So this is an arithmetic progression with the first member 1008,50 € with the difference 8,50 €.
Kn is the summary of two arithmetic progressions, ie. the progression Un and the konstant progression with
the first member 1000 €.
2. GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION AND COMPOUND INTEREST RATE
The progression
an n=1
is denoted as a geometric one if there exists such a number q that the equity
an+1 = an . q is valid for every natural number.
The number q is denoted as the quotient of the geometric progression , thus q =
an+1
.
an
Characters of geometric progressions:
n 1

the nth member of the geometric progression is determined by the equation a n = a1 . q

following equation is valid for arbitrary two members ar, as of the geometric progression
ar = as . q r s

qn 1
, q 1
the equation s n = a1
q 1
s n = a1 .n,
q =1 .
The compound interest rate is such a way of adding interests when the final interest at the end of every
interest period is added to the amount of capital already acquired and it is added together with it.
Example
The loan of 1000 € granted with the interest rate 20% adds interest once a year for the first time after one
year from being granted- it is the compound interest rate.
The loan installment is postponed to indefinite time, the debtor is a guarantee to the creditor by his real
estate.
1.
2.
Let us draw the first five members of the progression expressing the dependence of the debt
amount on the number of years of its period into the system of rectangular coordinates system.
Let us demonstrate that the progression is geometric.
Solution
Let us make use of the formula for Kn at the compound interest rate:
t 

K n = K 0 1 + ki

360 

n
92
In this case it is
K 0 = 1000 €, k = 1, i = 0,2 , t = 360 , thus
K n = 1000 € 1+ 0,2
n
K n = 1000 € .1,2 n
Let us enter the first five members of the progression Kn into the chart:
Number of years
Debtamount (in €)
1
1200
2
1440
3
1728
4
2073,6
5
2488,32
3000
2500
2000
Number of years
1500
Debtamount (in €)
1000
500
0
1
2
3
4
5
1. The first member of the progression Kn is
K1 = 1200€ ,
every other member is 1,2 times bigger than the previous member.
This is a geometric progression with the first member 1200 € with the quotient 1,2 .
LITERATURE:
[1]
MEČÁR, M., HRICIŠÁKOVÁ, D., IVANOVÁ, E., KORDOŠ, M., ADÁMKOVÁ, K. Podklady,
príklady a testy na prijímacie pohovory na šk. rok 2007/2008 z ekonómie, ekonomiky, matematiky
a cudzích jazykov. Trenčín 2007, s. 181-183, ISBN 978-80-8075-214-9
[2]
IVANOVÁ, E. a kolektív. Ekonomická teória, Trenčín 2006, s. 79, 82, ISBN 80-8075-168-4
[3]
KOIŠOVÁ, E. Podnikové financie, Fakulta sociálno-ekonomických vzťahov TnUAD, Trenčín 2007,
s. 27, ISBN 978-80-8075-201-9
[4]
BARÁNIK, M., HABÁNIK, J., KÚTIK, J. Úvod do ekonómie, ekonomiky a verejnej správy, Trenčín
2005, ISBN 80-8075-061-0
[5]
MALINA, D., HRICIŠÁKOVÁ D. a kol. Jednoduché účtovníctvo pre podnikateľov a neplatiteľov
DPH. 1994, ISBN 80-85513-08-0
[6]
MALINA, D., HRICIŠÁKOVÁ D. a kol. Jednoduché účtovníctvo pre podnikateľov a platiteľov
DPH. 1994, ISBN 80-85513-07-2
[7]
HRICIŠÁKOVÁ D. Ekonomicko-matematické aplikácie vo výučbe mikroekonómie a podnikových
financiách. Trenčín, 2007, ISSN 1336-3727
CONTACT:
Doc. RNDr. Daniela Hricišáková, CSc.
93
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
Tel.: 572 548 035
E-mail: [email protected]
RNDr. Dagmar Vacková
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
Tel.: 572 548 035
RNDr. Jitka Jablonická
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
Tel.: 572 548 035
Mgr. Iva Jevčáková
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
Tel.: 572 548 035
94
DEVELOPMENT OF PRIVATE LAW IN CZECH REPUBLIC - UPCOMING
CHANGES TO CIVIL LAWBOOK
František Hurbiš, Hanna Banetskaya
European Polytechnical Institute, Ltd.
Abstract: Law as a science discipline is not stagnant, but constantly evolving organism, which
must respond to all social, political and economic changes that the society which, respectively.
the entire world community is undergoing. This situation occurred in the Czech Republic after
1989 and from that time our legal system is undergoing constant improvement, which is still
also enhanced by the adoption of CR to the European Union in 2004 and the obligation to meet
our commitments to the European Union.
Keywords: private law, codification, revision, modernization, business, natural and legal
persons INTRODUCTION
Private law includes the rights and obligations arising from the mutual contact of persons who have equal
status and their free will. Private law arises in the private sector, so-called "bottom". Its main source is not
law, but free will, which is usually reflected in the contract. The Civil Code opens a very broad framework
of free initiative of individuals and their right to organize their private life according to their own and strive
for happiness. Most provisions of the Civil Code is dispositive, it means that they apply when the parties
will not affect another. Good will is generally limited by considerations of good morals, public order, honor
and dignity of persons. This means that it is against good morals, can not contractually agree. The legal
status of a person as an individual, including the modification of rights exclusively and logically connected
with his person, is a key theme of the first part of the Civil Code.
PRINCIPLES OF PRIVATE LAW
Private law does not stand only on the written text of the statute, but derives from general principles, some
of which are written, others unwritten. Among the major principles belong: to behave fairly, in accordance
with good manners, no harm to anyone without reason, to give everyone what belongs to him. This is
closely related protection of good faith, which is generally assumed for each. In private law everyone has
right to expect from others to behave like normal people.
The essential aspect is precautionary, not exaggerated anxiety. However, if someone logs on to a particular
profession or status, there is reason to assume that it abounds in certain knowledge and skills. It has
meaning only in the performance of contracts completed with professionals, but also in other contexts, such
as when providing advice.
Principles of private law followed the constitutional principles and pursue the emphasis on value aspect
which takes precedence over the formal aspect. Interpretation and application of law may not lead to cruelty
and ruthlessness offensive ordinary human feeling.
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CIVIL CODE
Although private law puts an emphasis on private speech and will give you a contract and may prefer, but
its provisions have particular significance in the fact that both give guidance to rational negotiation and also
facilitate private transactions. This also applies to the Civil Code, which also monitors, mostly mandatory
provisions effort to maintain a certain order. In particular, it concerns the rights of individuals working
towards everyone (erga omnes) and weaker protection, a man in a difficult situation, but also the layman in
contact with professional, tenant, etc.
The Civil Code establishes a general basis of private law. This is due to three basic functions:
Civil Code governing all private rights and obligations of persons, unless they are regulated by special laws.
The Civil Code provisions on personal summarizes the status of persons. It sets out what the legal
95
consequences of the conception and birth of a man and his death, when a man takes incapacitation, under
what conditions it is possible autonomy to reduce or get rid of her man. Provides both originates and
terminates the marriage, registered partnership, as arising and passing away of a legal person. This actually
codifies the status issue and fulfills the function of the Code.
The Civil Code is the code because the substance of private law systematically organizes and summarizes
the most important of legal institutions related to private life. The most important are: family, property and
contracts.
In addition to the above, it must be remembered that for a certain situation there may be missing explicit
rules in the Civil Code, and in specific legislation, then such a legal case will be examined by analogy, that
is the case in question under the provisions of the next. In extreme cases, the judge will have to decide
according to the principles of justice.
CHANGES IN THE PROVISIONS OF "NATURAL PERSONS"
A person has a legal personality throughout his life. It has the inherent right seznatelná actual reason and
emotion. These rights are inalienable and can not be waived them. The full incapacitation becomes a man
reaching 18 years before it can be obtained reaching the 16th year marriage. Newly proposed acquisition of
incapacitation also allow emancipation, if minor unable to feed themselves and cater to their affairs. It can
therefore from his will to return incapacitation, if it is in his interest. The newly proposed to strengthen the
security of third parties based on parental consent.
The new civil code significantly strengthens the protection of the rights associated with the personality of
man, such as the right to life, health, personal freedom, the name, honor, privacy, and more. Violation of
these rights must be undone, just as it is today, satisfaction. Newly, but prefers a fine compensation, which
must always be provided if there is insufficient as an excuse.The proposal of the Civil Code states by
special provisins elementary rights of a man held in a mediacal-health carecenre or hospital. (Návrh
občanského zákoníku zvláštními ustanoveními zakládá práva člověka zadrženého ve zdravotnickém
zařízení.) The reason for the inclusion of this amendment is that such measures interfere with human
freedom, and therefore fall within the scope of protection of personality more than the law that governs the
purely specialized professional activity.
conclusion.
The globalized world of shorter distances, but the freedom of movement of people also brings new
phenomena and therefore they must respond to our legal norms, especially the civil code. The proposed
amendment to the Civil Code certainly contribute among others to greater legal certainty of citizens who are
often unwittingly become the subjects and any legal relations. The company has for years been calling for
such change and the European Union strictly ensure that their standards are mainstreamed into the legal
systems of individual Member States. The Czech Republic, which is often criticized for the slow
performance of binding instructions from the EU this step also contributes to another important
approximation and harmonization of our legislation with EU legislation and other Member states.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
[1] ŠVESTKA, J a kol. Občanský zákoník. Komentář. Díl I. 1. Vyd. Praha : C. H. Beck, 2008. 2336 s.
[2] KNAPP, V. Systém československého socialistického práva v historii čtyřiceti let. 1. Vyd. Praha :
Právník, 1985. 445 s.
[3] Vývoj
soukromého
práva
[online].
[cit.
2011-01-20].
Dostupné
z
WWW:
http://www.komora.cz/Files/PripominkovaniZakonu/Materialy/188_oduvodneni.doc
[4] http://obcanskyzakonik.justice.cz/cz/obecne-o-zakoniku.html
ADDRESS:
JUDr. František Hurbiš
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
tel.: 572 549 018, fax: 572 548 788
96
Mgr. Hanna Banetskaya
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
tel.: 572 549 018, fax: 572 548 788
97
98
INNOVATIVE FORMS OF EDUCATION AT UNIVERSITIES TO DEVELOP
KNOWLEDGE STUDENT
Zuzana Chodasová1 Anna Jacková2
1
Slovak University of Technology, Institute of Management
University of Zilina,Faculty of management science and informatics
2
ABSTRACT: The preparation of students and graduates of technical schools must flexibly react
to the influence of external factors for praxis. From the educational unit is required quick
adaptability to the changing conditions of the market and job supply. Knowledge of internal
environment of education and attitude towards education based on information from internal
and external sources will allow accurate reaction to the given conditions in a timely manner
and according to the market demand. The aim of this article is to emphasize the importance of
the adaptation of students and graduates of technical schools to the he period of crisis, the
market needs graduates, who will be able to function in practice also as independently
functioning entrepreneurial units.
Keywords: controlling, management process, organization, financial controlling, education
process
INTRODUCTION
Management process influences an overall advancement of the property market, which is reflected also in
the proper operation of the financial sector. It is therefore necessary that the management must include such
methods as controlling and others that enable substantial elimination of risks of the given process.
Controlling is a methodological tool of management as its employment may result in quality information
necessary for efficient management. The present paper is therefore aimed to justify the employment of
controlling in the management
Uncontrolled development of the market may have negative impact on the country´s finance, but also
economics in general. It is therefore necessary that the management of enterprise must include such
methods as controlling, facility management and others that enable substantial elimination of risks of the
given process. Controlling is a methodological tool of management as its employment may result in quality
information necessary for efficient management. The present paper is therefore aimed to justify the
employment of controlling in the management of enterprise.
The paper deals with the question of controlling and his need for enterprises, as an indispensable method
used in the management of enterprise. Controlling for managers would be the high-qualified source of
information, in order to achieve given goals. The role of controlling is therefore a crucial question in the
education process for our Students.
CONTROLLING - ACTUAL METHODS IN MANAGEMENT
Business in a market economy is under great pressure of competition. It is forced to continually improve
their internal processes and management systems and respond to new situations and new functions of
management methods that would allow:
 to assess how the company sub-serve projected goals,
 to identify risks, highlight the threat and actual deviations from the desired development,
 analyze and evaluate the effects of business activities and decisions,
 planning and program development of business in the aggregate and analytic indicators,
 to inspire corporate governance to detect new business activities bringing economic effect.
These tasks also help to meet controlling with their instruments and other modern methods in the
management of business entities. Decisions that the management board implements must be expeditious and
efficient. Correct decision-making requires the supply of appropriate, precise and timely information,
which may be effected by controlling as a progressive management tool. One of the basic desirable qualities
that an organization should currently display is that of flexibility enabling a prompt reaction to the market
99
demands [1]. New requirements mean new approaches which enable a company to enter the market
competition successfully. Permanently changing environment requires the company management to be able
to take decisions in limited time space and ground them on true and complete information. These fast
changes of conditions in the company environment burden the work of the company management[3].
Controlling may be of assistance in performing the following tasks in the management of organizations:
 comparing plans and reality and budget control
 employment of information from accountancy of costs/management accountancy
 financial planning
 reporting
 analysis of deviations and their reasons
 information interpreting
 budgeting
 investment planning
 balancing accounts
 internal advisory services in decision-making process etc.
It is important to determine the relationship between the functions of management and controlling in a
business entity. Management of the organization takes decisions, assumes responsibility, whereas
controlling inspires, evaluates, analyses, controls and gives recommendations
The main instruments of controlling include budgeting, costing, accounting and financial plans, which are
important sources of information in control work. They provide important information about the costs and
benefits over their real flow and form the basic elements of a business. These tools must be interconnected
so that their information sheets are beneficial in controlling activities [2].
In terms of internal business management the managing finance are essential. They should be planned and
managed first to prevent sub-sequential detecting of variations and their causes. We therefore define the
fundamental objectives that have to meet internal management tools:
 control, i.e. recording variations and their analysis,
 providing information for decision making,
Executors of individual instruments are the people whose position is identical with the inclusion of these
instruments and the role of controller is to attune and coordinate their work, give them momentum and
impulses to the tools of economic management created such links, which would allow capturing the real
financial and capital flows within management organizations. These instruments provide important
information on the costs and benefits over their real flow, and are therefore essential elements of inhouse
information system .
Financial
management I.
Financial
management II.
Accounting and
computer
Costs and prices
CONTROLLING
Information
systems
Project
management
Econimical
project
Accounting
Calculations II.
Picture 1 Controlling and its coordination with other subjects
Individual instruments of controlling are taught in compulsory elective subjects or compulsory subjects at
various study programs. Controlling as subject can continue on the knowledge of the mentioned subjects
picture 1. In controlling area is particularly important financial controlling for the present , which focuses
mainly on liquidity management, which is taught in financial controlling.
100
FINANCIAL CONTROLLING
Liquidity is a deciding question when we consider creating a company goodwill in an enterpreneur
surrounding. It is necessary not to underestimate nor in a present situation when it seems everybody ows to
everybody and nobody has money to pay. On the contrary, in spite of all the problems it is necessary to
create the mechanisms which will be able to keep solvency of the company at each moment. If the
company manage this at the time of general payment insolvency it is assumption that the company will
keep this competitive advantage and what is also substantial just now the company will be very good
perceivable [4].
The most obvious evidence of company insolvency is an empty cash desk and a zero bank statement a situation when the company doesn´t have money to pay. If creditors – whereas they are business partners,
state councils and institutions, staff and others insist, the situation must be solved promptly. Realize some
parts of property or to additional funds in form of money that means mostly credits. Any measures needs
time. A situation should have been foreseen on time and it was necessary to prepare for it in advance. And
this is what the principe of planning income and costs is lying. A quality plan of income and costs will
reveal in time narrow profiles in liquidity. After their identification the process of finding is coming.Their
common feature is that in favour of liquidity increasing the company must give up something.
The biggest problem is collection of invoices from customers who have problems with insolvency
themselves or - what is also possible – by postponing payments they save their money at the expense of
other companies. These solvings can be considered:
 Require directly from the customers payments in cash. By this approach in the case of bigger
competition at the offer side, the company can easy lose its business partners. Similar impacts can
attack the company in the case of advances from the customers.
 Indirectly motivate customers to pay in cash, eventually by prompt payments - to provide discounts
from the price. In that case the company is abandoning the part of sales in favour of immediate
finance income. Optimal discount policy alternates from comparing abandoning incomes to an
effect of exploring timely gained profit.
 Secure recovery of debts by bill of exchange, this means by customer´s agreement in writing,
which provides the company the right to require a payment stated in a bill of exchange in a definite
period. It is relatively the most secure way of cashless sale, but again it is a pressure on a customer,
who in the case of choice possibilities from different offers doesn´t have to agree. The advantage
of bill of exchange is its dealing and legal settlement certainty.
 Relatively new but more and more used form in this area is factoring - selling claims to
specialized organizations which will take care of their payments. This solution will cost the
company decreasing of finance income because of compensation for factoring company. At the
same time the company can provide trade credit to its customers in spite of difficulties with its own
liquidity, what in the case of supporting an attractive business partner is of great importance.
Stated alternatives solve a narrow profile in liquidity by increasing incomes in individual critical
periods.The effect of releasing finance can company reach by clearance sale of relatively illiquide fixed
assets or by shortening the period of goods turnover. But these are the possibilities which results can come
with a certain period interval. The other way of solution narrow profiles in liquidity is restriction of
expenses. The biggest item of future expenses are liabilities from business relationships. To the moment of
their settlement business partners will credit the company so that it is a very cheap credit source. Delaying
invoices settlement the company is solving its own inliquidity but on the other side is complicating the
situation to its supplier [5]. Prolonging agreed terms can lead to losing the supplier and to threatening of the
company goodwill. In many cases - when there is a strong relation to supplier - the company can´t afford
this. Direct economic consequence of capital shortage can be losing of valuable discount, which provides
supplier at prompt payments and vice versa penalisation for delayed payment.
Similar situation results also at other liabilities (from others than business relationships). In case that
managing incomes and costs by mentioned and other devices isn´t enough effective, there is also alternative
to borrow money – to arrange short term credit to overcome period of inconsonance in cash flow.
Endangering factors of this possibility are: high interest charge, necessity of credit settlement what will
increase company´s expenses. To eliminate that it is necessary to strengthen finance structure for a long
period and to create a good relationships with a potential creditors.
At first sight it seems that periods when incomes exceeds expenses with accurate reserve are without
problems. It´s a mistake. Not even high finance share from overall company´s property comparing to
eligible payment obligations can´t influence satisfaction of the company. Especially if such situation is
101
repeated for several months. So an excessive liquidity should worry the company. The reason is in
contradiction of two basic finance goals - liquidity and rentability. If the company looks after liquidity it
decrease its rentability, increasing rentability can threaten its solvency.
To teach students how to properly deal with the particular areas of finance and financial management is
the task of subject controlling, which includes the area of financial management.
CONCLUSION
Managing finance and liquidity as a basic attribute of company survival in a trade economy is mainly
conditioned by finance sufficiency. While company has been existing, has been in liquidity, it´s important
to keep liquidity in future. This can´t result into opinion that past economic phenomenons aren´t for
company existence and so that also for its future liquidity essential , because past development and present
state aren´t possible to change, but it can be good for drawing a lesson as well as phenomenon and factors
can be identified which is essential for finding liquidity in future.
Therefore, economically-oriented subjects, which are taught in technical schools are for students and
graduates only benefit. This type of student is able to quickly adapt to the changing conditions of practice,
which also increases the overall quality of education intechnical colleges at present.
LITERATURE
[1]
ARBE, T. European Small Enterprises and Competition of New Members : International
Conference `EU`s Ability to Complete in Global World before and after Enlargement, Bratislava,
Slovak Republic, 16.6.2005. In: EU´s Ability to Complete in Global World before and after
Enlargement : International Conference. Bratislava, Slovak Republic, 16.6.2005. - Bratislava :
STU v Bratislave FEI, 2005. - ISBN 80-227-2247-2. - S. 48-53
[2]
CHODASOVÁ, Z. Signification Educatioon of Controlling on Technical Universityh, In: Výuka
a výskum v odvetvových ekonomikách a podnikovém managementu na vysokých školách, vyd.
Univerzita Pardubice 2003, ISBN 80-7194-623-, s 135
[3]
CHODASOVÁ, Z. Modern management methods in development organizations, In: First
international science conference „Knowledge society“, Sozopol Bulgaria 2008, ISSN 1313-4787,
s. 47
[4]
FOLTÍNOVÁ, A.; BUDINSKÝ, M. Reporting - information source for the managerial decisionmaking] In:Ekonomika a manažment = Economics and management , scientific journal of the
Faculty of Business Management, University of Economics, Bratislava. Bratislava, 2008. - ISSN
1336-3301. - Roč. 5, č. 2 (2008), s. 19-32
[5]
PILKOVÁ, A. Basel 2 as a driver of changes in the commercial bank strategic management ,
Comenius Management Review. - ISSN 1337-6721. - Č. 1 -2009, s. 47-64
ADRESS:
Zuzana Chodasová
Slovak University of Technology,
Institute of Management,
Vazovová 5
Bratislava 812 43,
Slovak Republic,
E-mail:[email protected]
Anna Jacková
University of Zilina,
Faculty of management science and informatics
Bakalárska 2,
971 01 Prievidza,
Phone: +421-46/5423056,
Slovak Republic,
102
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF ECONOMIC PHENOMENA AND PROCESSES
AN IMPORTANT TOOL FOR IMPROVING IN BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
Iva Jevčaková, Miroslava Lovichová
Evropský polytechnický institut, s.r.o., Kunovice
Abstract: Mathematical modelling of economic phenomena and processes currently occupies
an important position in all sectors of the economy and thus becomes an important tool for
improving corporate governance. The following post deals with the mathematical modelling of
economic processes in the plane including the interpretation of mathematical applications in a
specific example. The paper also pointed out the advantages of using a mathematical model of
economic system and the importance of application of mathematical modelling in practice,
especially nowadays, when increasing the competitiveness of enterprises is an important
prerequisite for obtaining welfare, while growth in market demands.
Keywords: linear programming, economic model, mathematical model, objective function.
INTRODUCTION
Construction of the general model supports decision making in operational level companies. There is a
currently growing importance of using these models in practice. The market situation in the current business
environment is constantly changing, growing competition among firms. To obtain a competitive advantage
for businesses is important to respect customers' requirements. Given this, it is important to good
management of business entities to ensure production efficiency. Business entities represent the productionconsumption systems with production-consumption relations. General theoretical knowledge of the
mathematical modelling allows the projected market demand variables that affect the prosperity of
companies. Mathematical modelling gains in recent years not only of great importance in practice, but also
occupies an important position in the education of students at universities of science, engineering and
economics.
ECONOMIC SYSTEM AND DISPLAY MATHEMATICAL MODEL
Application of economic-mathematical methods is very useful in practice. The definition of the system at
different authors vary, based either on quantitative characteristics of the system or formal expressions built
on set theory. For example M. D. Mesarovič, R. E. Kalman tried to define the precise mathematical
formalization of the system, which came out in mathematical set theory.
Converting an economic model to a mathematical model is an important phase in the application of linear
programming, which can generally be understood as a mathematical method for solving problems, which
have a number of interesting economic and technical applications. Each stage of the procedure in the
practical application of linear programming is as follows: [2]
1. Formulation of an economic model examined the issue with the definition of processes, consuming
factors in the course of economic processes, systems, structural coefficients that characterize the
resource consumption per unit respectively, unit production results and stating the criteria for
optimality, i.e. the important economic indicators, which has acquired in solving the problem of
maximum or minimum possible value,
2. Formulation of a mathematical model
3. Choice of algorithm solutions and using appropriate mathematical methods for the computation of
linear programming mathematical model economic interpretation of mathematical solutions.
4. In formulating the mathematical model must first analyse the economic problem, then the variable
with the exact determination of their significance, dimensions and units, as a next step following
statement limits the role of agents using linear equations or inequalities and last step is the
expression of selected optimality criteria as linear forms of variable assignments.
103
Mathematical models are classified according to many factors. The degree of aggregation of the
investigated object are distinguished microeconomic and macroeconomic models, as the expected
relationship between variables deterministic and stochastic models, in terms of development time to
distinguish between models of dynamic and static, etc. [4] In practice, very important linear models, ie
models where it is possible to express dependencies between variables that characterize the phenomenon by
using linear algebraic expressions.
The general shape of a linear mathematical model in the broken form has the following form:
The relational character ⋛ means that between the left and right side specific restrictive conditions can
occur only one of the following three sessions: ≥, ≤ or =.
For the relationship
function.
designation is used objective function or a criterial
The system of linear equations and inequalities:
expresses its own limiting conditions and the relationship
expresses the non-negativity
conditions. [5]
When the solution is to determine the values of the variables
, that the objective function has
reached extreme values. Tasks are referred to as the maximization when looking for solutions with the
highest value of the objective function or alternatively, as a minimization task.
Summation form of a mathematical model is as follows:
Symbols in the above expressions are referred to as follows:
cj - coefficient of objective function related to the j-th variable
xj - structural variable
aij - structural (techno-economic) coefficient expressing the relationship between the limiting condition and
the j-th variable
bi - right side of the self- limiting conditions [5]
DEMONSTRATION OF A MATHEMATICAL MODEL TO A SPECIFIC PRACTICAL
EXAMPLE
The following example is given as a demonstration build of a mathematical model in a particular situation.
Example:
The company is planning for next season production of two compounds A and B. For the production of
these compounds has a contract available from three types of suppliers of components K1, K2, K3 with a
capacity of 10, 12 and 15 tonnes differing quality and purchase price. In the production of both compounds
104
must be observed ratio of individual components, as shown in the following table.
A
B
Capacity
Component K1
0,5
0,1
10
Component K2
0,25
0,5
12
Component K3
0,25
0
15
It was a calculated profit, which amounts to CZK 10 000 as a mixture of A and 8000 CZK for mixture B.
The aim is to plan production to maximize profit. [2]
Solution:
Analyse a problem from the above example, we see that production takes place in the form of two
production processes (ie production of a mixture of A and B production mix) and level processes can be
measured a number of protruding factors, i.e., manufactured mixtures. Optimality criterion is the value of
production in these prices. In formulating a mathematical model to model variables expressing product
search program, i.e. the level of individual production processes while a mixture of A and B. It is therefore
necessary to introduce two variables: x1, x2, which will express a mixture of A and B (in tonnes). The
substantive importance of these variables shows a relationship: x1, 2 ≥ 0 Limit the amount of production in
the consumption of the three components can be expressed by the following linear inequalities:
The criteria for selecting the optimum production program in the above example the value of production in
CZK. The value of the overall production program can be expressed as a linear function of the following:
The complete mathematical model of the specific problem is broken down in the form of the following
form:
THE ADVANTAGES OF USING MATHEMATICAL MODELLING IN PRACTICE
Using a mathematical model of the system has many advantages.
 A mathematical model gives clear, concise view of objective reality and allows election procedure
of solving the problem according to current needs. [6]
 Using a mathematical model allows simulation and calculation of a number of variants of possible
outcomes and solutions to accelerate the process of cognition of objective reality. [6]
 Another advantage is the universality of mathematical description, a fact which allows using the
same mathematical formulas, in the same model to describe the decision-making situations that are
factually different.
 Using mathematical modelling can also be difficult to describe the decision-making situation very
accurately.
CONCLUSION
According to the importance of mathematical modelling we can find the fact that mathematical modelling
has spread to areas of natural, technical, economic, and social sciences. Mathematical modelling of
economic phenomena and processes is an important tool in solving specific problems of decision and an
105
important element in the implementation of efforts to achieve the most efficient behaviour, which is a
prerequisite for ensuring that a business is a market mechanism.
LITERATURE
[1] DOSTÁL, P.; MATUŠTÍKOVÁ, V.; JEVČAKOVÁ, I. Ekonomicko-matematické metody. Kunovice:
EPI, s.r.o., 2011. ISBN 978-80-7314-242-1.
[2] DOSTÁL, P.; RAIS, K.; DOSKOČIL, R. Ekonomicko-matematické metody. Kunovice: EPI, s.r.o.,
2007. ISBN 978-80-7314-122-6.
[3] DOSTÁL, P.; RAIS, K.; SOJKA, Z. Pokročilé metody manažerského rozhodování. Praha: Grada,
2005. ISBN 80-247-1338-1.
[4] DRDLA, M.; RAIS, K. Operační analýza – příklady. Brno: VUT v Brně, Fakulta podnikatelská, 1995.
ISBN 80-214-0713-1.
[5] HOLOUBEK, J. Ekonomicko-matematické metody. Brno: Mendelova zemědělská a lesnická
univerzita, 2006. ISBN 80-7157-970-X.
[6] HŘEBÍČEK, J.; POSPÍŠIL, Z.; URBÁNEK, J. Úvod do matematického modelování s využitím Maple.
Brno: Akademické nakladatelství CERM, 2010. ISBN 978-80-7204-691-1.
[7] JABLONSKÝ, J. Operační výzkum, kvantitativní modely pro ekonomické rozhodování. Praha:
Professional Publishing, 2002. ISBN 80-86419-42-8.
[8] KŘIVKOVÁ, M. Operační analýza a modelování. Brno: Mendelova zemědělská a lesnická univerzita,
1997. ISBN 80-7157-124-5.
[9] RAIS, K.; DOSKOČIL, R. Operační a systémová analýza I. Brno: VUT v Brně, Fakulta podnikatelská,
2006. ISBN 80-214-3280-2.
[10] RAIS, K.; DOSTÁL, P. Operational Research. Brno: VUT v Brně, Fakulta podnikatelská, 2007. ISBN
978-80-214-3437-0.
[11] RAŠOVSKÝ, M. Operační analýza a modelování. Brno: Mendelova zemědělská a lesnická univerzita,
1998. ISBN 80-7157-104-0.
ADDRESSES:
Mgr. Iva Jevčaková
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
Česká republika
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
Česká republika
106
ANALYSIS OF THE ALTERNATIVE RISK TRANSFER TOOLS
Zuzana Kozubíková
Evropský polytechnický institut, s.r.o. Kunovice
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to rewiev the possibilities of the insurance risks transfer.
Here are described the traditional proportional and non–proportional reinsurance methods.
The paper focuses on the modern alternative risk transfer tools. The most detailed analysis is
given for the insurance–linked bonds. Here are also surveyed the insurance derivatives,
contingent capital method and multiproducts.
Keywords: reinsurance, alternative risk transfer, insurance–linked bonds, insurance
derivatives, contingent capital, multiproducts
1 INTRODUCTION
New products and tools combine banking and insurance elements. So far, many of these have gone under
the heading of alternative risk transfer (ART). These are highly sophisticated products developed for major
buyers of risk management products, whether they be insurers, reinsurers or large corporates. At present,
many of these new financial techniques and markets remain marginal to mainstream re/insurance,
investment banking and corporate risk management. The success of many of these tools depends partly on
the appetite of the capital markets to take on risk. The insurance business in concerned in losses caused by
random events. The insured transfers his risk to the insurer and so covers all possible financial losses. The
insurance is, from this point of view, the tool of elimination the negative financial impacts of the random
events. For this protection the insured pays the premium and if the random event specified in the policy
occurs, the insurer provides him the value of the claim. The value of the premium is stated by actuarial
calculations, which are based on the statistical and financial analysis of the events belonging to the given
class of risks. That means, the value of the premium is influenced mainly by averages and the solvency of
the insurer is very sensitive to the unexpectedly large claims usually connected with extremely events. This
problem is traditionally solved by reinsurance contracts. In the present paper is given a short survey of
alternative approaches to the risk transfer. This modern approach takes advantages of the tools, which
primarily do not have the insurance character.
2 ALTERNATIVE RISK TRANSFER
The alternative risk transfer (ART) includes various methods representing more suitable tools for risk
transfer then classical reinsurance. These methods have started in the U.S.A. in the second half of the last
century mainly in the form of captive insurance companies. Applying the ART it is often possible to arrange
the protection with less expanses then in classical reinsurance. For applying the ART we have the following
arguments:

Enlarging the insurance and reinsurance capacity. The capacity of the insurers and reinsurers is many
times insufficient for all risks of today world (let us recall the earthquakes in high developed regions,
ecological and nuclear risks, terrorist attacks etc.). For some kind of risk it is impossible to find
insurer and here are also explored new, till now not registered risks, as computer networks attacks,
global fall of the electric network and similar. Therefore the insurers specialised in the large risks
started in the last decade the searching of the new financial resources.

Elimination of the premiums volatility. The reinsurance premiums are very volatile, because
historical records of the losses affect it. Consequently, it does no provide the required stability for the
insurers.

The insurance and reinsurance protection is cheaper. Large catastrophes in last years (hurricanes
Andrew and Katrina, terrorist attacks on the 11-th September 2001, tsunami in the south-east Asia
etc.) led to the massive reduction of the insurance reserves and so to the dramatically growth of the
reinsurance premiums.
107


Exploiting the capacity of the financial markets. The dependency of all enterprises on the situation
on the financial markets grows globally. Therefore it is natural to solve also the insurance business
by this way. The capacity of the financial markets overlaps the capacity if the insurance markets
many times.
Reduction of the credit risk. The ART tools can reduce the credit risks of the insurers and reinsurers.
The insolvency wave in the nineties of the last century and consequent decline of the insurance
companies rating proves the sensibility of the credit reliability of these companies.
3 RISK HOLDERS IN THE ART
The risk holders in the ART are:

Captive insurance company is an insurance company being owned by the subject, which originally
does not work in the insurance business and to the insurance of its owner is given the priority. The
captive insurance is the oldest method of the ART and is exploited for risks with large loss
frequencies.

Self–insurance is typical for the U.S.A. It is concerned namely in the branch of the worker’s
compensation, but sometimes is applied also in other kinds of the responsibility insurance.

Risk retention groups are mutual insurance companies. They were created as reaction to the boom of
the responsibility insurance in the eighties. This retention groups overtakes the responsibility of their
members, but they must underwrite the necessary capital into these groups.

Insurance pools, which associate the insurers and reinsurers to accumulate sufficient capacity to
cover large risks. The pools are often organised on the national base for partial classes of the risk.

Financial markets belong also to the tools of the ART. The necessary financial resources are gained
by issuing the securities derived from the insurance, as insurance linked bonds, weather derivatives
etc. Specialised brokers, called special purpose vehicles, play an important role in these transactions.
4 ART TOOLS
To the most important ART tools, we describe in the rest of this paper, belong:

insurance–linked bonds

insurance options

insurance swaps

insurance–linked securities

contingent capital

integrated multi-line/multi-year products.
INSURANCE–LINKED BONDS
The insurance–linked bonds are the most frequently applied tools of the insurance risk securitisation. We
often meet them in the form of the catastrophe bonds, or shortly CatBonds. They are in general highearnings bonds with the risk of default in the case of catastrophically event. The coupon of these bonds
exceeds the market average. From history we introduce some examples of such bonds:

USAA Hurricane Bonds were issued by insurance company USSA specialised in insurance of former
US army officiers These one year bonds were issued in the face value of 0.5 billions of USD and
were linked with the risk of the hurricanes in the Gulf. The coupon rate was LIBOR+2.73% and it
was reduced in the case of insurance loss overlaps 1 billion USD and the risk of default was linked
with the insurance loss over 1.5 billion USD.
Winterthur Windstorm Bonds were three year bond with the face value 4 700 CHF and they were

linked with the risk of windstorms and hail in the cars insurance. Their coupon rate was 2.73%
linked with risk of zero coupon in the case of more than 6 000 claims in one calendar year (the whole
portfolio contained 773 600 insured cars in the year 1997). Moreover, the bonds were also
convertible with warrant for five stocks of the Winterthur.

Swiss Re California Earthquake Bonds were issued by reinsurance company Swiss re. Their maturity
was three years and they were issued in amount of 137 millions USD and were linked with the
earthquake risk in California. These bonds were also the first catastrophe bonds, which received also
the rating of Moody’s and Fitch. Their coupon rate was 11.592% but in the case of earthquake in
California was reduced their face value with possibility of default in the case of large loss depending
108
on the PCS index (this index is based on the largest insurance loss caused by the earthquake in
California during the last two years before actual date).
INSURANCE OPTIONS
The insurance derivatives are an important group of the ART tools. These derivative securities are broadly
used in the financial world and similarly as the insurance bonds are linked with the insurance business. This
links are based on the loss indexes as the PCS.
The insurance options are often applied in the combination of the long and short positions in two calls with
different exercise price. This strategy is called spread. Let us consider the combination of the long position
in the call with the exercise price X1 and short position in the call option with the exercise price X2, where
X1 < X2. The profit of the owner depends on the value of the PCS and is illustrated on the figure 1 by the
bold line. In this figure is combination assigned as 30/50 PCS Call Spread. If the price of this spread is 4
percent points and the real value of the PCS is 45%, the owner had to pay 4 · 200 = 8008 USD and
exercising it he gains (45 - 30) · 200 = 3 000 USD. (We recall, that one percent point in calculations based
on PCS is always represented by amount of 200 USD.)
INSURANCE SWAPS
As well as the financial swaps the insurance swaps represent some forms of the swapping the cash flows. In
the reinsurance practice we can meet two kinds of the swaps:
a) Swapping of the group of the insurance contracts, which enable standardized exchange of the policies
for similar risks. By the exchange is meant the swap of the cash flows linked with the insurance policies
during the given period. This exchange is enabled by existence of the CATEX type exchanges. To this
type belongs the American electronically exchange CATEX (Catastrophe Risk Exchange) and the
insurance derivatives are also traded on the CBOT. The goal of such insurance swaps is the
diversification of the insurance portfolios of several insurers.
b) Swapping of the variable and fixed payments between the insurer and reinsurer. The volatility of
payments at the insurer follows from the varying claims and swapping for the fixed payments from
reinsurer is eliminated significant portion of the insurance risk.
CONTINGENT CAPITAL
Contingent or committed capital is the reinsurance treaty, when the given subject has the obligation to raise
the capital of the insurer. The main goal is not the risk transfer, but solving the financial problems in the
moment of the needy of the capital. The contingent capital can have the following forms:

Guaranteed loans with the volume and price contracted in advance

Buying the put options on own stocks by the insurer

Bank-funded life reinsurance, which is applied in the life insurance
MULTIPRODUCTS
The integrated multi-line/multi-year products cover more risks stated in the reinsurance treaty during
several years. In one treaty are so incorporated the reinsurance requests for a sufficiently long period. As an
example can serve the fire insurance, insurance against the operation breaking and responsibility insurance
for the ten year period. The advantage of the multiproducts is the reduction of the transaction costs and
better transparency.
In this group belong also Multi-trigger products, which pay the reinsurance benefits only if beside the claim,
which is the first trigger, occurs some other event - the second trigger, which has not the insurable character.
This second trigger can be for example some event on the financial markets, which is represented for
example by decline of the interest rates, the currency exchange rates or the value of the stock market index.
5 CONCLUSION
In the paper we introduced some tools for the alternative risk transfer in the insurance and reinsurance
business. We have seen that the alternative transfer tools provide modern and more effective methods for
covering the insurers risks then traditional reinsurance methods alone. It is remarkable, that this alternative
109
methods enable efficiently exploit the free financial resources of the financial markets. New pressures on
the insurance industry - pressure to manage the cost of capital more efficiently and pressure to adapt to
changing needs of clients - will lead to the increasing incorporation of financial techniques to manage
capital and to finance risk. The extent to which this happens will depend more on insurers' willingness to
innovate than on investors' appetite for risk. The most dramatic expression of the introduction of financial
techniques into the insurance industry would be the virtual insurance company - an entity which transfers
risk directly to the capital markets.
REFERENCES
[1]
BOWERS, N. L. GERBER, H. U., HICKMAN, J. C., JONES, D. A., NESBITT, C. J.: Actuarial
Mathematics. Society of Actuaries, Itasca, IL 1986
[2]
BŰHLMANN, H.: Mathematical Methods in Risk Theory Springer Verlag. Berlin, 1996.
[3]
CIPRA, T.:Kapitálová přiměřenost ve financích a solventnost v pojišťovníctví, (In Czech),
EKOPRESS, Praha, 2002. 637–659.
[4]
CIPRA, T.: Zajištění a přenos rizik v pojišťovníctví. (In Czech) Grada, Praha, 2004.
[5]
EMBRECHTS, P., KLŰPPELBERG, C., MIKOSCH, T.: Modelling Extremal Events for Insurance
and Finance. Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1997.
[6]
GOOVAERTS, M. J., KAAS, R.: Ordering of Actuarial Risks. Caire Education Series 1, 1994.
[7]
HULL, J.: Options, Futures and Other Derivative Securities. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersy 2002.
[8]
WOO, G.: The Mathematics of Natural Catastrophes. Imperial College Press, London 1999.
[9]
http://www.vinodkothari.com/alternative_risk_transfer.htmAddress (cit. 110305)
AUTHOR
Zuzana Kozubíková
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
110
COMMON PROBLEMS OF THE CENTRAL EUROPEAN ECONOMIES
DEVELOPMENT
Zuzana Kozubíková
Abstract: This article is dedicated to the common problem of Central European economies.
These countries are oriented towards trade and financial liberalization. It provides insight into
the current situation, on the activity of the state and enterprises and on the public perception.
It shows the dependence of economic growth on the flow of credit from banks, which is valid
not only in the central economies. The conclusion presents the EU vision (strategy 2020) as a
response to the crisis concerned in promoting the economic growth in the Eurozone.
Keywords: central European economies, EU, crisis, FDI, GDP, strategy.
1.INTRODUCTION
State economies in Central Europe has in recent years been marked by turbulent development. The whole
model of economic growth was based and that since the nineties, on the commercial and financial
liberalization, which was supported by efforts to integrate into the EU. It appeared that just this orientation
meant, the region was particularly sensitive to the economic crisis and there is only a slow return to precrisis level.
Impressive growth in the region over the past ten years has been supported by export. In Slovakia, in the
Czech Republic and in Hungary, export accounted for 80-90% of GDP. Slovakia reached the record GDP
growth in 2006 and 2007. In 2006 it was in 2006 and 10.4% in 2007. That contributed to the raise of the
development and foreign investment. Inward investment is now setting the stage for increasing the
production and GDP in the future. The investors from Netherlands, Hungary, Austria, Germany, Italy,
France, Sweden and South Korea had the greatest interest to invest in Slovakia [4]. Investors interested not
only for investments into the automotive industry, but also for machinery, electronics, metal processing,
rubber, wood (furniture). Large investments have been made in the paper industry and energy.
The greatest outlet for Central European countries was Eurozone (especially Germany). A large part of the
industry focuses on production of cars and the region became a competitor of the Asian countries. In order
to compete and attract as many investors from other sectors the central and local governments offer tax and
non-tax concessions. As an example we can note the state guarantees or tax holidays. Support is selectively
granted for investments in the selected sectors and in the selected regions with high unemployment and
under other criteria, depending on long-term state strategy. Promotion of foreign investment had good
results. The car production in Central Europe has been doubled since 2000 till the first signs of crisis (at the
turn of 2007/2008).
While the year 2009 was still marked by a sharp drop in foreign investment, the year 2010 brought a
reversal as well in the Central and Eastern European countries. The volume of foreign direct investment has
grown nearly 4% of GDP (almost more than twice) in the Czech Republic and 1% of GDP in Slovakia [4].
Foreign investors operating in Slovakia are optimistic again. From the survey focused on the mood of 166
companies follows, the European investors expect better deals. "Approximately 40 percent of questioned
companies plan to invest more and enlarge the number of the employees," says the survey presented by the
Slovak-German Chamber of Commerce [1].
2. THE FINANCIAL SYSTEM OF THE CENTRAL EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
As already mentioned above, the Central European countries have since the nineties gone through trade and
financial liberalization, as reflected by seeking integration in global capital markets, and sold most of its
banks to foreign financial institutions. After the outbreak of financial crisis, where Western European banks
were rehabilitated by the government budgets (taxpayers money), in Central European countries it was not
111
so noticeable. Western banks temporarily worsened the situation of their central offices by allowing them to
limit their lending affiliates.
Even in the recent past, great investments passed from major investment banks in the restructuring of the
banking sector in Slovakia. Currently, Central European countries are under pressure from their financial
systems.
Striking problem is not only the debt at the state (government) level, but as well debts of municipalities,
businesses and also ordinary citizens. State concerned to reduce costs and increase their income (which is in
the end paid by citizens), the producers debts are also reflected in the prices of their products or services and
indebted consumers have less money to spend, since they are charged by costs of the various types of loans,
rising living costs related to meeting basic needs and they must be save.
It's a vicious circle - economic growth depends on the bank loans. It is unrealistic to maintain the current
amount of money in the economy without creating new funds. But any new fund covers interest payments
and economic growth!
3. HOW IS REFLECTED THE CURRENT STATE IN THE ENTERPRISES
In times of crisis, the real uncertainty, associated with the placement of the product to market, rises. In terms
of crisis, the enterprises move their decision making to enable cost saving programs, including truly
versatile and cost reduction from not taking new employees, but also layoffs, restrictions on production
capacity, to "freeze" a profound restructuring of investment [1].
Management of the companies aware the possibility of the turbulent global economy development and
therefore it focuses on:

continuous monitoring of market developments with a rapid response to this changing market,

finding markets that were less affected by the crisis, or the purchasing power of the population of the
country or specific area was not so much (or was only temporarily) affected,

exploit the market opportunities that are not interesting for major competitors,

selection of marketing tools is done intentionally,

wisely seek opportunities for the application of marketing tools,

wide range of measures concerned in the efficiency in order not to waste funds.
The crisis was reflected mainly by a profit reduction (no benefit) or by reducing the cash flow from business
up to customer loss and business dissolution. The crucial condition of the firm's survival has become a
collection of contracts and in the current, rapidly changing conditions also achieving the adequate financing
structure. Businesses, but also citizen / consumers cannot borrow indefinitely, as they reduce their
consumption and thus the economy will decline.
4. PERCEPTIONS OF THE CURRENT STATE OF THE EU ECONOMIES BY THE PUBLIC –
CITIZENS
Last two years 'forced' the public to re-evaluate the overall view on the consumption - their real life needs.
Exclusively crisis signed below some of them, some were brought by changes in the society; others were
started by the government’s interventions before the "recovery package". Effects are clearly visible - the
continuous growth of energy prices, food for daily consumption, fuel, medicines, various fees, which are
unavoidable, needy of the saving for retirement, increase in expenditure related to education etc., to
unemployment and overall deepening social tensions in society [6].
Therefore, the public - an ordinary citizen - orients to products that approach their benefits and uniqueness.
He buys a product that has a broad utility in the scope of his living needs. This change causes pressure on
the product prices due to competition. Many products are shifted, due to their durability, from the subject
box of long-time durable products to the box of the short-term consumption.
Throughout it is spoken about reviving the economies of Central Europe, here arises a new problem – credit
over helming of the certain population groups - and hand in hand with it the first signs of the consumption
crisis.
112
According to a survey published by the European Commission's Eurobarometer, citizens of the EU
countries EU evaluate negative the current state of the economy of their country. The results differ only in
the degree of the negative evaluation. "In a Europe-wide average, the majority of the citizens considered as
a poor the state of the world economy, somewhat less the state of the European economy and the least of the
EU27 citizens considered as a poor the state of the economy in their own country" (Eurobarometer Autumn
2010). The EU citizens assigned as the greatest problem they suffer to be the most pressing the future
expectations regarding employment opportunities in their country, unfavourable economic situation, rising
prices and inflation. Slovak public notice these problems much more than the EU average.
5. CONCLUSION
The European Union has adopted a growth strategy for the coming decade, which should ensure the
intelligent, sustainable and solidarity-based economy in the continuously changing world. These three
mutually reinforcing priorities should help the EU and its member states to provide a high level of
employment, productivity and social cohesion. Partially, the EU has set ambitious five targets to be
achieved by 2020 and focused on the employment, innovation, education, social inclusion, climate and
energy. It is assumed that each member state shall adopt its own national goals in each of these areas.
Concrete measures are set out to support the policy on the EU as well as on the national level.
The European economy is now slowly emerging from the deepest recession in decades. Europe has the
complex plan of the reaction on the crisis and of the accelerated economic growth in the Europe. It now
needs to focus its efforts in a coordinated manner and with an eye on priorities. In the main Communication
the Commission focuses on an integrated approach to recovery concentrating on key measures in the
context of Europe 2020 and encompassing three main areas [7]:

The need for rigorous fiscal consolidation for enhancing macroeconomic stability

Structural reforms for higher employment

And growth enhancing measures
It is anticipated that support for further progress will be small and medium enterprises, investment in
research, development and innovation. At EU level, several programs in these areas produce very good
results - increase of the competitiveness, promote long term economic growth and employment in the EU.
Moreover, here is the possibility to apply the elements of cooperative management, ie. the use of
cooperative principles, such as clusters, networks, etc. - ex. set of regional corporations, and entrepreneurs
who are inter-linked.
Acknowledgement: This work has been supported by the grant VEGA 1/0992/11 “Cooperative
Management - an innovative approach to business”.
REFERENCES:
[1]
KUCHARČÍKOVÁ, A., TOKARČÍKOVÁ, E., ĎURIŠOVÁ, M., JACKOVÁ, A., KOZUBÍKOVÁ,
Z., VODÁK, J.: Výrobné faktory. Computer Press, Brno, 2011
[2]
ZÁBOVSKÁ, K.: „ANALYZING DRIVER SCHEDULING SOLUTION“, Journal of Infomation,
Control and Management Systems, Vol. 6, (2008), No.1, Faculty of Management Science and
Informatics, University of Zilina
[3]
STRIŠŠ, J. a kol.: Marketingové riadenie. Žilinská univerzita v Žiline, EDIS-vydavateľstvo ŽU,
Žilina, 2009
[4]
KUCHARČÍKOVÁ, A.: Prílev priamych zahraničných investícií na Slovensko pred a po vstupe do
EÚ. Conference Proceedings academic international conference: the effects and new calls for the
national and regional labour markets, Slesian University in Opava, Opava, 2008
[5]
KOZUBÍKOVÁ, Z.: Riziká a rizikové faktory v doprave, Krízový manažment, vydala FŠI ŽU
v Žiline, č. 2/2008, Žilina, 2008
[6]
KOZUBÍKOVÁ, Z., PANČÍKOVÁ, L.: Využitie prognostických metód pri skúmaní obchodného
rizika. Zborník 6. medzinárodná konferencia "Vysoká škola jako facilitátor rozvoje spoločnosti a
regionu", (22. januára 2010 Hodonín), Evropský plytechnický institut, s.r.o. Kunovice, s.75-79,
Hodonín r. 2010
113
[7]
[8]
http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/index_en.htm
http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/tools/monitoring/
AUTHOR
Zuzana Kozubíková
Katedra makro a mikroekonomiky
Žilinskej univerzity v Žiline
Slovenská republika,
t.č. ++421/41 5134423,
114
TAX POLICY OF THE CR AND ITS IMPACT ON BUSINESS
Yvona Legierska
Institute of Finance and Administration, Prague
Abstract: The paper deals with the promotion of entrepreneurship in the Czech Republic
through a slight adjustment of the tax burden on private operators. Attention is focused on
income tax and legal entities, especially on the critical items that affect the amount charged to
expenses (costs), reducing the tax base and tax credits. The conclusion is brief information on
planned changes in the tax system with effect from 2013.
Keywords: Tax policy, tax reform, tax system, businesses, compound tax quota to the tax mix,
tax, fixed expenses, depreciation of assets, depreciation of assets, loss deduction, investment in
R & D, donations, tax credits, investment incentives, single collection point.
I.
Success in business depends on a variety of circumstances. Very important is to set the environment for
business with the economic policy. Its important tool is fiscal policy and tax policy especially. They can
influence their investment and forms the structure of production, demand and its structure, similar to
consumption and its structure, inflow or outflow of capital, the intensity of work activities, construction,
ownership structure, pricing, etc.
Since 1993, when the Czech Republic was an entirely new tax system was gradually introduced to the many
tax law changes strongly support private enterprise. It also reflected the change in the structure of
economic entities. In particular, the Law on Income Tax has been completed in relation to the ongoing
privatization and restitution, the new Commercial Code of 1991, gradually supplemented by some new
economic category, events and operations.
Privatization and the emergence of new businesses has gradually increased proportion of subjects in
private ownership. With the opening of the economy, and in particular the provision of investment
incentives, beginning in 1998, there was a rise in the number of enterprises under foreign control. Shares of
national and foreign private sector since 2000 and quickly settled. The share of private enterprises and
corporations under foreign control since 1992, when they were around 8%, steadily increasing (more so
in the years 1999 and 2003) and currently represents more than 40%.
Graph 1: Structure of gross value added by ownership
Pink – public sector
Blue – the national private sector
Yellow – under foreign control
Grey - other
Source: Czech Statistical Office
115
Another, equally important change is the new size structure of enterprises. Large companies were often
divided into smaller, but it was based a great number of small firms (measured by number of employees)
and individuals with particular trades.
Table 1: Development of economic entities in the Czech Republic
Including by selected legal form
By institutional sector
govern- NNO
companies
and
corporations
companies
Businessis private
public
Year
ment serving
cooperaprivate total
joint
compaentrepretotal
tives
public private
foreign compa- housestock
nies
neurs
nies
holds
control
.
.
.
.
.
1990 178 993 124 455
.
658
.
3 505
.
.
.
.
.
1991 955 647 898 564 23 112 2 541 3 977 3 737
1992 1 118 637 1 029 343 39 495 4 076 4 041 3 272 6 129 57 853
4 670 13 330 20 394
1993 1 250 216 1 114 621 60 376 4 813 4 617 2 920 4 734 80 746
9 333 14 428 30 743
1994 1 118 534 938 221 88 424 6 017 5 214 1 522 3 464 110 814
16 841 15 347 37 193
1995 1 321 096 1 093 151 112 514 7 565 6 172 2 270 3 811 143 723
26 777 15 587 47 863
1996 1 468 940 1 202 097 130 626 9 255 6 806 1 886 3 241 168 536
34 933 15 759 58 547
1997 1 627 626 1 323 364 145 859 10 353 7 826 1 621 2 902 187 687
41 170 15 640 68 084
1998 1 781 334 1 429 946 165 123 11 697 9 276 1 312 2 571 218 014
56 093 15 526 74 589
1999 1 963 319 1 528 151 188 058 13 009 10 236 1 214 3 197 259 990
81 547 14 734 79 053
2000 2 050 770 1 572 917 204 075 14 092 11 007 1 117 3 004 278 085
94 845 15 256 89 984
2001 2 121 562 1 624 445 214 637 14 845 11 536 1 054 2 651 290 320
99 762 15 321 101 257
2002 2 223 745 1 708 204 220 451 15 260 12 085
995 2 276 267 285
76 870 16 052 109 952
2003 2 325 977 1 771 945 232 204 15 903 13 078
899 2 276 319 874 108 960 19 404 117 192
2004 2 352 977 1 770 014 244 537 16 403 13 334
803 2 055 339 741 120 770 18 711 124 261
2005 2 388 490 1 761 096 256 657 17 031 13 839
746 2 411 358 711 130 961 18 470 131 296
2006 2 430 481 1 796 336 270 884 18 093 14 391
668 2 352 379 153 140 518 18 262 135 619
2007 2 481 863 1 817 408 290 218 20 455 14 887
602 2 247 406 802 154 251 18 173 143 142
2008 2 552 149 1 845 016 311 309 22 700 15 338
526 2 171 440 286 173 222 18 028 111 490
2009 2 570 611 1 839 233 329 100 23 312 15 636
420 2 006 471 779 192 332 17 989 115 409
households
.
.
1 020 530
1 119 390
951 547
1 109 945
1 222 679
1 353 128
1 470 446
1 606 155
1 654 249
1 711 816
1 827 935
1 866 974
1 867 565
1 877 323
1 894 826
1 911 227
1 979 895
1 963 183
Source: Czech Statistical Office
II.
The most important business support, however, consisted in the gradual reduction of the compound tax
quota of more than 40% of collected taxes and insurance premiums to gross domestic product (GDP) in
1993 to almost 35% in 2009. This trend should continue in the following years, while the other changes
planned for January 1, 2013, which will most likely apply a new law on income tax, would be the
compound tax quota to get the 33% level.
Table 2: Development of the compound tax quota and its structure in the Czech Republic
Tax revenue as percentage of GDP
Total tax revenue
Taxes on income, profits and capital gains
Social security contribution
Taxes and payroll and workforce
Taxes on property
Taxes on goods and services
Other taxes
1993
40,4
10,3
15,6
0,6
0,4
13,5
0,1
1994
38,9
9,7
15,6
0,1
0,5
13,0
0,1
1995
37,6
9,4
15,5
0,0
0,5
12,1
0,0
1996
36,0
8,1
15,5
0,0
0,5
11,8
0,0
1997
36,3
8,7
15,8
0,0
0,6
11,3
0,0
1998
34,9
8,1
15,4
0,0
0,5
10,8
0,0
1999
35,9
8,3
15,6
0,0
0,5
11,5
0,0
2000
35,3
8,0
15,6
0,0
0,5
11,2
0,0
2001
35,6
8,6
15,7
0,0
0,5
10,8
0,0
2002
36,3
9,0
16,0
0,0
0,5
10,8
0,0
2003
37,3
9,5
16,3
0,0
0,5
11,1
0,0
2004
37,8
9,5
16,0
0,0
0,4
11,8
0,0
2005
37,5
9,1
16,1
0,0
0,4
11,8
0,0
2006
37,0
9,1
16,1
0,0
0,4
11,2
0,0
2007
37,3
9,4
16,2
0,0
0,4
11,1
0,0
2008
36,0
7,9
16,1
0,0
0,4
11,5
0,0
2009
34,8
7,4
15,3
0,0
0,4
11,6
0,0
Source: OECD
It should be noted, however, that the compound tax quota at 35% occurred in times of very low economic
growth (1998, 2009). The Czech Republic has the following indicators in the OECD countries on average
rank in the organization, the EU is its compound tax quota slightly below the average level of the
Community.
The tax burden in the event of such a development is moved to the labour costs, which in practice often
leads to not always legal solution, where instead of employing people (employees) are hired professionals,
respectively private entrepreneurs. This corresponds with the unusually high number in the Czech Republic
- more than 1.8 million people (see Table 1). The share of social security contribution and the tax mix in the
Czech Republic amounts to more than 40% and the share of GDP or more than 15%.
116
Graph 2: The tax mix in 2009
21 % - value added tax
15 % - consumption tax
10 % - legal entity income tax
10 % - natural person income tax
2 % - other taxes
42 % - social security contribution
The amount and structure of taxation reflects the political choice between pure economic efficiency and
other objectives and preferences In recent years, it is quite clear shift from direct to indirect taxation. This
resulted in adjustments to tax rates (since 2010 at two tax rates of 10 and 20%) and increase the
consumption tax rates especially for mineral oils.
Given that income tax have a decisive impact on business, the next part of the paper focuses on the direct
tax.
III.
The revenue from the legal entity income tax in 1993-2010 mainly grew, with the exception of the years
1994, 1996, 1997, 2006 and 2009, particularly in the years 1997 and 2009 there were economic stagnation.
In other years, the decline in choice influenced more important tax changes, in particular by reducing tax
rates. Legal entity income tax rates decreased from 45 % in 1993 to 19 % in 2010 (see Table 3).
A somewhat different trend was observed in natural person income tax. In the Czech Republic there was a
progressive tax, originally with six bands. Their number has gradually decreased up to four. Since 2008,
there is a uniform tax rate of 15%. The revenue from the natural person income tax - entrepreneurs
peaked in 2005 and then declined in 2006 and decline further jump in 2009.
117
Table 3: Development income tax revenue
Legal entity income tax
share of
Tax
number
tax
total
CZK
period
of tax
rate
million taxes in
in % subjects
%
1993 66 221
28,7
45
1994 56 124
21,0
42
1995 55 383
18,5
41
1996 49 968
15,2
39
1997 41 020
12,1
39 217 269
1998 52 064
14,2
35 234 666
1999 54 819
14,0
35 258 743
2000 58 088
14,5
31 280 399
2001 75 940
17,3
31 305 517
2002 90 737
19,2
31 321 487
2003 96 978
19,1
31 430 818
2004 106 526
23,4
28 359 178
2005 137 432
26,5
26 358 420
2006 128 865
25,0
24 373 866
2007 155 674
26,9
24 396 053
2008 173 590
28,6
21 422 932
2009 110 543
21,1
20 447 800
2010 114 746
20,9
19
x
Natural person income tax - entrepreneurs
share of
CZK
total taxes
million
in %
3 486
14 240
14 815
15 843
15 880
16 530
17 103
16 546
18 796
21 901
22 131
24 040
26 583
17 854
17 003
17 749
5 565
7 987
1,5
5,3
4,9
4,8
4,7
4,5
4,4
4,1
4,3
4,6
4,4
5,3
5,1
3,5
2,9
2,9
1,1
1,5
tax rate in %
15,
15,
15,
15,
15,
15,
15,
15,
15,
15,
15,
15,
15,
12,
12,
15
15
15
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
19,
19,
25,32,40, 47
25,32,40, 44
25,32,40, 43
25,32,40
25,32,40
25,32,40
25,32,40
25,32
25,32
25,32
25,32
25,32
25,32
25,32
25,32
number of
tax
subjects
1 908 787
2 079 933
2 306 433
2 514 470
2 685 938
2 877 730
3 054 220
3 202 921
2 477 694
2 929 048
3 126 386
3 250 557
2 880 422
x
In 2006, revenues were reflected in the natural person income tax - entrepreneurs lower tax rates in the two
lowest bands of a total of four (in earlier years there were up to six tax brackets) and generous possibilities
of so-called lump-sum costs. These range from 40 % to 80% of annual revenue by type of activity carried
out and thus have a significant impact on the amount of the tax base, where the actual expenses are less.
Every year a natural person - entrepreneurs save taxes in amount of about 4.8 billion CZK. This legal option
also reduces costs for the administration of the tax records, since the use of lump-sum costs is much simpler
administratively. At the same time reducing the administrative burden of control of these entities by the
state, respectively Tax Offices.
This option uses about 20 % of natural person income tax from tax returns.
118
Table 4: Development of tax returns with lump-sum costs
Number of tax returns - natural Proportion
person income tax
of tax
returns
Tax period
with lumpof which the
total
lump-sum costs sum costs
in %
2000
1 448 084
2001
1 534 584
2002
1 591 128
2003
1 597 174
2004
1 523 480
2005
2 034 970
2006
2 245 762
2007
2 347 280
2008
1 791 453
156 050
157 453
172 262
171 065
166 085
225 700
278 015
313 851
354 620
10,8
10,3
10,8
10,7
10,9
11,1
12,4
13,4
19,8
In 2009, the significant reduction the revenue from the natural person income tax - entrepreneurs (up to
threefold) in addition to projected impacts of global financial crisis, a uniform tax rate of 15% imposed
under the tax reform from 1.1.2008. This replaced the gliding progressive taxation that existed in the Czech
Republic until the end of 2007.
IV.
A significant reduction in the tax burden in the area of tax deductions, as a major factor in the tax eligible
expenditures. Business - legal entities and natural persons, if no use of lump-sum costs, can be applied in
the taxable year in expenses (costs) of entry of the tangible and intangible assets in the amount of annual
depreciation. This will reduce the income or revenues. Assets are divided into several groups with a single
depreciation period in a group, regardless of the actual useful life. Business support is expressed by the
amortization period under the Act is significantly shorter than real life.
Depreciation of tangible assets from 1993 to 2010 is captured in the following table. In 1993, depreciation
has been applied to five groups with a depreciation period of 4, 8, 15, 30 and 50 years, which was gradually
shortened to the current 3, 5, 10, 20, 30 and 50 years. The depreciation period of 50 years, since 1999, first
reduced to 30 years to the year 2004 was again applied for an office building as an element of compensatory
trend of reduction in tax rates. You can use the linear or accelerated depreciation, according to the taxpayer.
Table 5: Groups of depreciation and amortization period of fixed assets in the Law on Income Tax
Year
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
Depreciation
number of amortization
groups
period in years
5
4, 8, 15, 30, 50
5
4, 8, 15, 30, 50
5
4, 8, 15, 30, 45
5
4, 8, 15, 30, 45
5
4, 8, 15, 30, 45
5
4, 8, 15, 30, 45
5
4, 6, 12, 20, 30
5
4, 6, 12, 20, 30
5
4, 6, 12, 20, 30
Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Depreciation
number amortization period in
of groups
years
5
4, 6, 12, 20, 30
5
4, 6, 12, 20, 30
5
4, 6, 12, 20, 30
7
3, 4, 5, 10, 20, 30, 50
7
3, 4, 5, 10, 20, 30, 50
7
3, 4, 5, 10, 20, 30, 50
6
3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 50
6
3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 50
6
3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 50
Source: Act No. 586/1992 Coll. on income taxes, as applicable in the year
119
Of intangible assets to which the taxpayer has a right to use the term, the annual depreciation adjusts by
dividing the input price and the agreed contract period In other cases, intangible assets are amortized evenly
without interruption, and audiovisual works of 18 months, software and intangible results of research and
development 36 months, 60 months-up costs and other intangible assets over 72 months.
An important factor in terms of scope for expansion of fiscal expenditure and the introduction of the
possibility of writing off debts since 1995, due in late 1994 to some of their values (from 1995 to 1997 of
up to 10%, from 1998 up to 20 %) and barred debts due after 1994 in the form of tax deductible adjustments
up to 20, 33, 50, 66, 80 and 100% of their nominal value, respectively purchase price depending on the time
elapsed since the period of their maturity (6-month cycle of suspension at a higher production than 33% by
the end of 2003 and over 20% since 2004, court, arbitration or administrative proceedings).
V.
The tax base may be lowered by number of items that have not only reduce the tax base, but also the tax
itself.
Significant support is allowing the deduction of business losses of the previous five years, which will arise
if they exceed the costs for the income. From 1995 -2003 it was even seven years back.
Since 2005, businesses investing in proprietary research and development to deduct from the tax base
100% of the costs in the taxable period. This includes expenditure on the implementation of research and
development projects, which take the form of experimental or theoretical work, design or construction
work, calculations, design technology, manufacturing functional sample or prototype product or part thereof
and the certification of the results achieved through research and development projects. If you incurred costs
related to the implementation of research and development only in part, can be deducted from the tax only
that part. Fiscal year entities projected that costs as deduction in the amount of CZK 4.7 billion, by which
both legal and natural persons save approximately CZK 977 million in income taxes annually.
Very significantly reduce the tax base value of donations to entities listed in the Act, to support specific
activities such as funding for science and education, research and development purposes, education, etc. The
value of donated property is more than the present net value of tangible assets or the value captured
accounting for other assets.
Legal entities may deduct in total more than 5% of the tax base reduced by including any tax loss or the
cost of their own research and development and in the case of donations to provide secondary schools and
higher vocational schools to purchase materials or equipment or for repair and upgrading of facilities used
for practical teaching, universities and public research institutions can reduce the tax base by no more than
5%. Annually legal entities reduce their tax bases due to the deduction of donations of 2.3 billion CZK,
which means it will save about 490 million CZK tax income.
Natural persons can deduct in total more than 10% of the tax base. Every year natural persons applies the
value of the donation in the amount of CZK 1.4 billion, saving on taxes, 616 million CZK.
VI.
In addition, businesses can claim tax relief. It is the amount by which the payment is calculated tax
reduction provided for by law. As an example, a reduction of natural person and legal entity income tax in
the employment of persons with reduced working ability.
To support and expansion of foreign investments was introduced in the system of investment incentives
since 1998, in direct relation to the law on investment incentives, reflected in the Law on Income Tax for
the recipient of investment incentives institute 100% tax credit, starting in 2000 for 10 years and since
2008 for 5 years. Tax bodies have used the statutory tax credit is not required to pay annually approximately
more than 2 billion CZK tax income.
The introduction of this tax credit has increased the competitiveness of the CR in the inflow of foreign
investment to the economies of other Central European states. The entire system of investment incentives
has a significant impact on the economy of the CR, supports economic recovery and helps to increase
employment.
VII.
Currently being prepared next phase of tax reform, with the effective date of 2013, which represents a
further reduction in direct taxes for businesses. The main objective of the reform of the system is simplified
as much as possible, which should bring lower costs for both the State and to the taxpayers.
120
From the above date a single collection point for collection of taxes and social and health insurance should
start working (for tax returns, reports, health insurance and social security will be only one form).
In connection with the simplification of taxes and two pins of the pension insurance contributions into
private funds should be put in single rate VAT. This should compensate for lack of funds in the pension
account for ongoing funding for existing pensions.
After more than ten years of preparation should a new law on income taxes exist. It should be easier thanks
to systematic organization with substantially fewer tax exemptions Cancels the concept of super-gross wage
introduced in 2008, when the tax on employment will be re-count of gross wages rather than increased by
34% of social and health insurance paid by the employer. These ancillary labor costs are reduced by 2
percentage points. Czech Republic thus further improves conditions for business.
LITERATURE
[1]
Taxation in the European Union. Prague: Linde, 2010. ISBN 978-80-7201-799-7
[2]
The tax theory with practical application. Prague: CH Beck, 2008. ISBN 978-80-7400-005-8
[3]
Tax Theory and Policy. 5th ed New York: Wolters Kluwer, 2010. ISBN 978-80-7357-574-8.
[4]
CZECH STATISTICAL OFFICE: Czech Republic in dates (1989-2009). Prague, 2011. ISBN: 97880-250-2085-2
[5]
Research Study Tax relief in the Czech Republic. Prague: Ministry of Finance, 2010
RESOURCES:
Czech Statistical Office - www.czso.cz
Ministry of Finance - www.mfcr.cz
European Commission, Taxation and Customs Union - www.ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/index_en.htm
OECD – www.oecd.org
CONTACT:
Ing. Yvona Legierska
Institute of Finance and Administration, Prague
Estonská 500
101 00 Praha
Czech Republic
[email protected]
121
122
IMPERATOR COMPANY BUSINESS ACTIVITIES AND INNOVATION
TENDENCIES
Miloš Majerník
Abstract: Imperator Ltd. is middle–sized company owned by Slovak owners. The company
during the dividing of company’s ownership and management process also defined own
mission, vision and strategy. Among the most important innovation tendencies ranks to make
SWOT analysis and PEST analysis, to establish daughter company in the Czech republic, to
realize the internet marketing project and to state the exclusive club service.
Key words: Social network, Internet, Marketing, Company, Analysis, Spirits.
INTRODUCTION
Original and unique products manufactured by the IMPERATOR Ltd. based in Drietoma, built on a long
term and rich history and tradition of the distillery industry in Trenčín’s region. IMPERATOR produces and
bottles up a wide range of spirits – brandy, vodka, gin, junipers brandy, fruit spirits, spirits and fruit liquors.
Products fall into the category standard spirits, branded spirits and distillates. All products meet even the
most demanding criteria, which are placed on the quality and packaging. At the beginning of the company
establishment and its operation stands invaluable experience of people contributed to the production of
unique products such as Red Hot Chilli liquor.
1. COMPANY PROFILE
Imperator Ltd. was established in 1994 and it started its business activities in 1995. It linked up its
operations to the long-term and rich tradition of spirit industry in the Trenčín’s region. From the beginning,
the company has been dealing with production and filling of a wide range of spirits, as for the common
consumer liquors and also brand name liquors. Moreover, all of these fulfill the basic and the most
demanding criteria for both the quality and the final treatment of product prior to its launching. The
company operation program consists of 120 assortment items in present. In these days, there are more than
85 people employed in the company that brings in evidence about an increasing trend in company
development. In the first years of existence, the base of operation program was based mostly on consumer
sorts of spirits with a long-term built popularity among the Slovak consumers. On the other hand,
nowadays, the new products, which have been introduced to the market gradually and according to the
results of marketing research, are in the majority. These kinds clearly indicate that the high quality spirits in
exclusive packaging are perspective on the Slovak market, and so the company invests not small funds into
the innovation programs and proposals for design of individual products. In 2003, the company proceeded
to the establishment of the managerial quality system ISO 9001:2000. In June 2009, IMPERATOR Ltd. was
given Certificate EN ISO 9001: 2008 for activity: Production and selling spirits and business activity in the
area of food industry until June 2012. The company obtained the certificate from ACB Ltd. Trenčín. The
unambiguous evidence of company’s success comes from numerous awards that it got for its effort. Because
of high competitive industry on the market, the company tends to attract its customers by launching new
products with effective design, but also permanent innovation of products that have been sold for many
years. Moreover, it is essential to improve marketing promotional activities in terms of printed leaflets and
product promotion.
2. AWARDS

Gold Alimenta for IMPERATOR Brandy - exhibition Gastra Alimenta 2000

Gold sickle for spirit class Millennia- The International Fair Agrokomplex 2000

Diploma for design of spirit class Millennia- The International Fair Agrokomplex 2000
123


Gold Pack 2000 for spirit class Millennia in a prestige competition of the best pack – International
Fair Printing 2000
Quality Mark of Slovak Republic , DANUBIA GASTRO 2008 exhibition for the following products:
o Silver Vodka kosher 38 % vol.
o Silver Juniper kosher 38 % vol.
o Red Hot Chilli Liquor 27 % vol.
o Imperator Plum Brandy kosher 45 % vol.
o Williams Pear Brandy 45 % vol.
o Golden Pear spirit 42 % vol.
o Golden Plum spirit 42 % vol.
o Golden Apricot spiri 42 % vol.
o Golden Griotka spirit 27 % vol.
o Pear brandy with honey spirit 36 % vol.
o Apricot with honey spirit 36 % vol.
Except production and distribution of spirits, Imperator Ltd. focuses its business activities also on import
and distribution of VIVO bakery yeast produced by Lesaffre Ltd. in individual packaging.
3. THE COMPANY DOMICILE
The company domicile is situated in the village Drietoma, situated near the historical town Trenčín. The
first written mention from year 1244 „Drethoma fluvius“ is about a river. Other archive materials are about
settlements by up-stream and down-stream of Drietoma. Upper and Down Drietoma have been named based
on these settlements. Certainly, the settlements existed in year 1244. These are mentioned in later archive
materials of Upper Drietoma that was fired by Tatars who reached Drietoma Valley from Moravia that time.
Drietoma and Stary Hrozenkov are not bound just by their common history of Great Moravian Empire, but
also historical events that took place in Drietoma Valley. Drietoma village is located southeast from
Trenčín in the Valley of Drietoma River on the Slovak- Moravian border. Cadastral territory is placed
between Czech borders in alongside direction to cadastral territory of Kostolna Zariecie village. On the road
I/ 50 there was a custom zone with Czech Republic. The territory belongs to the chain of Biele Karpaty and
its great part belongs to Protected Landscape Region of Biele Karpaty. To the main monuments in Drietoma
belong a chateau and a park. Friedrich Stritzel was its last owner. At the evangelical cemetery there is a
baroque belfry. There is some information about baroque church of St. Catharine dated to year 1675. In
1901, a neo-renaissance church of St.Catherine Alexander, was built at the place of the church. Historical
symbol of Drietoma is St. John Evangelic. A doubt about the patron of Drietoma is not reasonable because
it is clearly presented by the oldest seal of local parish from 1633. The folk heritage is very rich. It has been
the merit of many folklore collectors who have carefully recorded hundreds of songs. Mr. Karol Stopka has
collected, signed and composed the most of folk songs (740). Thanks to his effort, the brass band of
Drietoma appears on TV and radio. Musical traditions of local folklore are spread by the local brass band
called Drietomanka and youth brass band Drietoma. Kopaničiarske musical festival takes place here
frequently in cooperation with the village of Stary Hrozenkov. A festival of brass bands has been organized
in the village since 1999. There are a few settlements that belong to the village of Drietoma: Brúsne,
Zvrácená, Žrnové, Dolina, Liešna and Holbová. Some settlements got a character of recreational zones.
4. EXCLUSIVE CLUB SERVICE
Exclusive club service is a new service how the company can address your business with a unique and
valuable present and this way to leave your exclusive message as a mean of common good relationships.
IMPERATOR Ltd. is a producer of exclusive alcoholic drinks that have been awarded for quality and
design. It offers clients a broad variety of exclusive distillates and spirits with a possibility to create your
own message of your own identity on a bottle that you choose personally, using your logo or other message
towards your addressee. Using the Exclusive Club Service you or your company can use all possibilities to
express its own value and relationships to your customers, business partners and friends. The opportunities
of the Exclusive Club service are wide enough. The company cooperates with a team of top Slovak
designers. Experiences of the company’s professionals and experts who degust create the quality of
products. IMPERATOR Ltd. can offer you a wide range of unusual bottles. These products are hand-made
and this is giving them a possibility to be dressed according to your claims and ideas. Exclusive Club
Service is a unique and new service on the market. Using this service the company offers you: delivery of
exclusive presents and also frequent communication with you and your company.
124
The team of professionals is ready to meet your needs and claims. In case you decide for long-term use of
this service, you can become a member of the Exclusive Club where there will be total attention, quick
service, direct designers´ care and preferential treatment devoted to you. Exclusive Club works as a system
of VIP.
5. INTERNET MARKETING PROJECT
Internet marketing project of Imperator, Ltd. was implemented in social networks last year. This marketing
project was realized at facebook.com, pokec.sk and twitter.com. It included electronic banners focused on
spontaneous knowability increment of company products, and competition defined as send a bottle to your
friends. This customer competition consisted of: firstly make a best slogan for Golden Pear spirit and
secondly make your own Golden Pear etiquette. It meant that clients made their own etiquettes for Golden
Pear Spirit at higher defined social networks and sent them by mail or social network to their friend. At the
end of this competition there was a sortition of the best slogans and Imperator Ltd. in name of best slogan
authors sent a bottle of Golden Pear Spirit to their friend defined under the slogan. This customer
competition was very successful and will be repeated during the summer 2011. There are two the most
successful banners by customers review in the next page.
6. DIVIDING OF COMPANY’S OWNERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
During last two years dividing of company’s ownership and management process was the most important
occasion. Imperator, Ltd. is a middle-sized company with 86 full-time employees and turnover nearly 10
million € a year. This process was finished by created a new board of directors and new organizational
structure of the company. The four Slovak owners, who managed the company before this process started,
created a new supervisory board. The top management of company has the next structure:

General Director

Business Director

Marketing Director

Financial Director

Production Director

Director for Logistics
Picture 1: Red Hot Chilli Spirit Banner
Picture 2: Golden Hruška Spirit Banner
125
6. IMPERATOR BOHEMIA, LTD.
In 2008 there was established a daughter company Imperator Bohemia in the Czech Republic. Imperator
Company Ltd. wants to expand geographically into neighbor countries of Slovakia. However the
consumption of spirits is very regional and historical affair, and so to be successful in abroad is much more
difficult than in Slovakia where the Imperator Company does a business more than 15 years. The main task
for Imperator Bohemia Ltd. for next three years is to build up a spontaneous knowability of Imperator Ltd.
company products in the Czech Republic through the daughter company.
7. SWOT ANALYSIS
There was also done Imperator Ltd. SWOT analysis to define company’s strengths and weaknesses,
opportunities and threats into near future.
Strengths

Wide product portfolio

High product quality

New company’s webpage

A lot of awards

Activities diversification
Weaknesses

Unsatisfied marketing communication

Have not own distillery
Opportunities

Product export into abroad

More promotional activities in social networks
Threats

Strong competition

Legislation changes

Retail network business power
8. PEST ANALYSIS
Pest analysis includes political, economic, social-culture and technical factors which influence the changes
in company surroundings and was done together with SWOT analysis.
Political factors – presented mainly by spirit consumption tax, which makes consumption of spirits more
and more expensive
Economic factors – during the global economic crisis people spend less money on spirits
Social-culture factors – people’s changing life-style and decreasing spirits consumption
Technical factors – necessity to replace some parts of technologies
CONCLUSION
Imperator Ltd. is middle–sized company owned by Slovak owners with 15 years tradition of spirits
production. The company during the dividing of company’s ownership and management process also
defined own mission, vision and strategy. Among the most important innovation tendencies ranks to make
SWOT analysis and PEST analysis, to establish daughter company in the Czech republic, to realize the
internet marketing project and to state the exclusive club service.
The IMPERATOR Ltd. mission is to be successful company in fast moving consumer goods sector in the
long run with specialization on spirits production and sale.
CITATIONS AND LITERATURE
[1]
IMPERATOR company, Ltd. Annual reports 2005-2010
126
[2]
MAJERNÍK, M. 2009. Dopady zvýšenia spotrebnej dane z liehu v SR. In: Zborník z vedeckej
konferencie s medzinárodnou účasťou „Aktuálne problémy finančného manažmentu
v konkurenčnom a krízovom podnikateľskom prostredí agropotravinárskych podnikov.“ [CD-ROM].
Nitra: Slovenská poľnohospodárska univerzita v Nitre, ISBN 978-80-552-0312-6
AUTHOR
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
127
128
THE IMPACT OF FINANCIAL SITUATION ON COMPANY INVESTMENTS
Miloš Majerník, Miroslava Lovichová
Abstract: Investment means rational allocating of money funds both inside of company, also in
its economic surroundings. The aim of this article is to determine how the company financial
situation impacted the development and structure of investments in the selected group of
agricultural enterprises in the west Slovakia region. There were identified five main factors
which significantly impacted the level of agricultural enterprises investments during the
analyzed period: net cash flow, profit, subsidies, bank credits, depreciation. There was not
significant impact of company financial situation at investment activity given by chosen
financial analysis index.
Key words: Financial situation, Investment, Company, Financial analysis.
INTRODUCTION
An important factor influencing economy of production and competitiveness of the companies is investment
activity. Investment activity gives rise not only to enhanced production, but especially provides the
necessary qualitative changes in the structure of tangible and intangible assets. And despite increasing
capital intensity and thus by substitution work of growing capital and labour productivity, investment
activity is conditional on maintaining and possibly the creation of jobs in the company.
Investing ensure economic growth and the business sector, whilst still places greater emphasis on its
sustainability, which in addition to creating higher profits and revenues means that investments should lead
to improving the interaction of humans with the environment and contribute to the mitigation of social
inequalities. Investment activity is principally dependent on the availability of own or foreign sources of its
financing with transformation of economic and property holding restricts both groups of these funding
sources.
AIM, MATERIAL AND METHODS
The aim of this paper is to determine the impact of the financial situation of the company on its investment
activity as well as to identify the factors that determined the most prominent development investments and
their funding sources in the selected file farms in the Slovak Republic, which were included in the
questionnaire research on a random basis from business of the west-Slovakia region.
Using the methods of regression and correlation analysis, we estimate the dependence between selected
financial indicators and an indicator of investment represent volume per 1 ha of farmland. Selected set
constituted 87 holdings, which are situated on the territory of Trenčín, Nitra and Trnava region. Their
numbers were: 62% and 33.3% of cooperatives liability companies restricting and 4.7% equity firms.
FIRST ASSESSING THE FINANCIAL SITUATION OF ENTERPRISES
To assess development of the financial situation of farms we have used a group of selected indices of
financial analysis, the ex-ante, whose average values are shown in Table 1 Average values of indices of the
financial analysis were calculated as a weighted arithmetic average of the values of individual enterprises,
where the weight, the total capital of the firm. Relative abundance of undertakings belonging to the group in
question as defined in the methodology of selected financial indices of ex-ante analysis are shown in the
Table 2
On the basis of the average values of indices of financial ex-ante analysis can identify companies that file a
financially stable, although based on the values of each index can arrive at somewhat different conclusions.
Based on the values of Altman, Z-score was analysed a set of business on the border between the healthy
financial situation and the status when the capacity index is indifferent. During the period of increased
proportion of enterprises belonging among financially healthy firms by about 5%, but on more than half of
129
enterprises were found in the zone of indifferent capability index.
Based on the average of the index credit score, the financial situation of enterprises described as good in the
second half of the period analysed, because up to 64% of enterprises in 2006 found in his, at least in good
financial position, while the proportion of such enterprises has been steadily increasing.
Based on the values of the CH-index, however, businesses throughout the reporting period were among
firms with slack year except 2006, when as a whole were among flourishing businesses and value of the
CH-index gradually reaching less unfavourable values. Number of booming business during the analysis
period more than doubled. Under the G-index values were among companies throughout the period
analysed between slack business, with no farm did not belong among the booming businesses.
Chart 1 Financial analysis ex-ante – Development of indexes
2000
2001
2002
Z - coefficient 2,238
2,489
2,367
Bonita index
1,557
1,302
Index FA
0,976
2003
2004
2005
2006
2,269
2,422
2,386
4,237
0,235
1,622
1,304
1,629
CH - index
-12,253
-4,296
-4,292
-14,033
-0,077
-3,694
14,203
G - index
-0,882
-0,820
-0,840
-1,042
-0,868
-0,903
-0,870
Index IN 95
1,949
2,678
2,081
0,775
2,436
1,852
2,032
Index IN 99
0,460
0,556
0,479
0,315
0,524
0,459
0,482
Index IN 01
1,012
1,212
1,039
0,720
1,180
1,029
1,070
Source: M. Majernik
Based on values of financial distress we know so-called credit: IN95 there is possible to make the inclusion
of the business with the exception of 2003 between the stable and financially healthy companies with the
ability to meet its obligations, although in 2000 and 2005 the average index value for the required IN95
value of 2, but to her approaching and share very stable and financially healthy businesses exceeded the
proportion of enterprises in bad financial situation. 2003 was very typical trend by destroying of Increasing
Financial situation analysed businesses that given year based on the index value IN95 are among companies
with inadequate capacity to meet its obligations, while the share of enterprises in bad financial situation in a
given year doubled compared to 2002, in again next year even more decreased. The adverse financial
situation in 2003 also confirms the biggest difference of receivables and payables overdue, which just this
year amounted to 350 € against overdue receivables, which was partly influenced by the worse climatic
conditions in a given marketing year. Given the revised index weights IN95 with respect to their importance
in achieving positive values economic profits arise of financial distress index - ownership: IN99, whereby
already analysed the business population does not value, and negative values and economic gain to more
than 70% of companies included in this category. Based on the average composite index of financial
distress - the vast IN01 some holdings located in the grey zone in which businesses do not value or they do
not go down, the so-called creditworthiness of an entity not forming value and frequency of these
enterprises had a downward trend for growth of the firms making up the value.
As mentioned in the index for IN95 and the other two indices of Neumaier identified in 2003 as a period
when there was a significant and sudden deterioration in the financial situation of the analysed companies,
as confirmed by the decrease in average values of those indices and the growth of the firms belonging to the
poor or slack businesses. Na basis of expenditure of the financial analysis of the business was, essentially,
all indices identified in 2003 as the period in which the deteriorated financial situation of the analysed
companies, which highlights the impact of natural and climatic conditions on their financial situation and,
consequently, investment activity and confirms the existence of systemic risk in the agricultural sector and
its impact on farm management.
Chart 2 Relative numbers of companies based upon indexes in financial analysis ex-ante.
Altman´s Z-coefficient
Companies/year
Financial healthy
Indifferent
value
of
companies
Critical financial situation
Bonita index
2000
17,20%
2001
26,40%
2002
20,70%
2003
24,10%
2004
23,00%
2005
25,30%
2006
31,00%
49,40%
33,30%
49,40%
24,10%
60,90%
18,40%
51,70%
24,10%
66,70%
10,30%
55,20%
19,50%
51,70%
17,20%
130
Companies/year
2000
2001
2002
extreme good financial
situation
4,6%
6,9%
2,3%
Very
good
financial
situation
14,9%
24,1%
23,0%
Good financial situation
19,5%
29,9%
28,7%
Specific
financial
situation
31,0%
25,3%
34,5%
25,3%
11,5%
10,3%
Very
bad
financial
situation
3,4%
0,0%
1,1%
Extreme bad financial
situation
1,1%
2,3%
0,0%
CH - index
Companies/year
2000
2001
2002
Well running
21,8%
37,9%
34,5%
Average running
26,4%
21,8%
17,2%
Bad or no running
51,7%
40,2%
48,3%
G - index
Companies/year
2000
2001
2002
Well running
0,0%
0,0%
0,0%
Average running
35,6%
39,1%
32,2%
Bad or no running
64,4%
60,9%
67,8%
Index: IN 95 = Index of financial distress
Companies/year
2000
2001
2002
Financial
healthy
stability
47,1%
66,7%
58,6%
Risky – similar problems 11,5%
10,3%
17,2%
41,4%
23,0%
24,1%
Index IN 99 = Index financial distress
Companies/year
2000
2001
2002
Positive economic profit 1,1%
2,3%
0,0%
Early value
2,3%
0,0%
3,4%
Impossibility to create
value
1,1%
4,5%
2,2%
No early value
9,2%
12,5%
19,1%
Negative economic profit 86,2%
80,7%
75,3%
Index IN 01 = Index of financial distress - combine
Companies/year
2000
2001
2002
Value creating
24,1%
29,9%
25,3%
value but without value
35,6%
46,0%
51,7%
bankruptcy
40,2%
24,1%
23,0%
2003
2004
2005
2006
3,4%
10,3%
10,3%
16,1%
8,0%
21,8%
19,5%
41,4%
18,4%
26,4%
19,5%
28,7%
25,3%
16,1%
23,0%
4,6%
29,9%
12,6%
20,7%
9,2%
16,1%
1,1%
1,1%
4,6%
9,2%
0,0%
1,1%
1,1%
2003
25,3%
13,8%
60,9%
2004
42,5%
16,1%
41,4%
2005
43,7%
12,6%
43,7%
2006
46,0%
14,9%
39,1%
2003
0,0%
26,4%
73,6%
2004
0,0%
28,7%
71,3%
2005
0,0%
35,6%
64,4%
2006
0,0%
35,6%
64,4%
2003
2004
2005
2006
37,9%
10,3%
51,7%
71,3%
11,5%
17,2%
56,3%
12,6%
31,0%
64,4%
13,8%
21,8%
2003
1,1%
1,1%
2004
0,0%
3,4%
2005
1,1%
2,3%
2006
2,3%
2,3%
2,2%
10,1%
85,4%
4,6%
17,2%
74,7%
2,3%
18,2%
76,1%
6,8%
15,9%
72,7%
2003
13,8%
32,2%
54,0%
2004
31,0%
52,9%
16,1%
2005
27,6%
43,7%
28,7%
2006
39,1%
40,2%
20,7%
SECOND IMPACT OF THE FINANCIAL SITUATION OF ENTERPRISES IN INVESTMENT
ACTIVITY
From the file specified financial indices ex-ante analysis, we selected the CH-index and index IN01, which
divided the set of analysed companies for approximately equal-sized groups. These indices were used for
the breakdown of the business into three groups based on their evaluation methodology of the financial
situation of farms to verify the impact of the financial situation of the undertaking on the amount of the
investment. The amount of investment in each business group has over the years from 2000 to 2006 was
compared by analysis of variance (ANOVA).
On the basis of the results ANOV-y was found difference in the volume of investments per hectare of
agricultural land between different groups of businesses, which documents the table showing the third The
volumes of investments are characterized by high variability in all three business groups throughout the
period analysed. Based on the average values of individual investment enterprise groups, however, be noted
that these indices are not a suitable tool for the identification and classification of enterprises according to
the amount of the investment calculated on a hectare. The largest volume of investments made by
businesses located both in the index or middle grey zone, thus not forming creditworthiness of an entity
according to the value index in 01 enterprise in terms of average or CH-index. Then it follows a group of
non-running businesses seeking bankruptcy and paradoxically profitable firms constituting the value
131
reached by those indices the lowest volume of investment. It therefore follows that the financial situation of
enterprises provided above index is also a relevant factor determining the amount of the investment
activities of the undertakings. Enterprises which were evaluated according to the selected index as slack or
implement a larger volume of investments for the development of their products and maintain its existence
as businesses that was financially sound and stable.
Chart 3 Average level of investment in single company groups according to the Chand IN 01 indexes.
CH-Index Inv Sk/ha
p.p.
Well
running
businesses
Average businesses
Businesses with no
running
Testing criteria
Reliability of test
IN 01 Inv Sk/ha p.p.
Well-running
businesses
Average businesses
Businesses with no
running
Testing criteria
Reliability of test
Indicator/year
2000
average
average
2001
2002
2004
2005
2006
5 555,92 6 144,96 7 345,09 5 504,74
6 261,10 4 098,38 4 406,63 3 684,38
6 632,63
12 220,96
6 706,46
10 775,09
6 366,55
20 229,22
average
F
P value
Indicator/year
4 395,14
0,520
0,598
2000
10 884,37
0,360
0,701
2003
3 562,18
2,860
0,063
2004
7 042,04
1,220
0,299
2005
5 488,82
2,320
0,105
2006
average
average
6 421,25 7 704,86 5 518,98 4 785,24
5 413,44 5 258,27 9 349,20 14 614,13
4 930,27
5 677,54
6 329,81
7 255,20
5 262,25
12 188,52
average
F
P value
2 638,28 5 108,86 6 155,10 5 377,30
2,260
0,760
0,440
0,830
0,111
0,469
0,649
0,441
11 136,76
1,350
0,266
8 587,53
0,500
0,606
5 091,68
1,020
0,364
6 617,57
0,340
0,716
2001
8 843,03
0,270
0,764
2002
2003
Based on the selected indices, we also consider the level of net cash flow and profits of individual groups of
companies where we found that the index is able to demonstrate IN01 companies divided by the amount of
profit. According to both indices reached the largest volume of profit and net cash flow of a group of
prosperous businesses. The conclusion can be stated that the biggest investment projects undertaken
companies which did not belong, or between mature, but businesses that reached in these variables mean
values, in order to maintain their long-term survival and market.
Based on these indices, we also evaluated the impact of the financial situation of the holding structure of the
sources of financing their investments. Source of investment in individual groups of undertakings during the
period were compared by analysis of variance (ANOVA), with no sources of funding in the structure of
investment was based on the results ANOVA-s found significant difference. Table 4 shows the evolution of
the share of internal resources for financing investment. Share of different sources of financing investments
are characterized by high variability from internal sources, which the variability in all groups of enterprises
reached moderate levels.
Based on average values of individual sources of funding for investment can be concluded that a thriving
and prosperous businesses are characterized by a slightly higher share of internal resources to finance their
investment projects in comparison with other groups of enterprises. Conversely companies slack or
bankruptcy used increasingly to finance their investments just bank loans, which confirms the ability of
creditworthy company makes a profit and to a lesser extent from foreign sources of funding. Grants as a
source of financing investment in the fullest possible use of average businesses located in the grey zone of
the two indices, which suggests that the provision of farm subsidies directly linked to their financial
situation. A significant difference was found in the use of leasing as a source of investment funding between
the prosperous businesses and other groups of enterprises according to both indices. The average share of
the lease is to achieve double the value of a typical undertaking bad-running than going concerns and an
increasing trend in the proportion of leasing in the financing of investment is confirmed by all groups of
businesses. Also possible to conclude that the deteriorating financial situation defined a given index is
declining self-financing investment and increase foreign sources of funding for investment in the form of
bank loans, but especially by means of leasing, which also confirms the greater credit constraints and less
creditworthy bad-running undertakings mainly characterized by a loss management.
132
Chart 4 Average numbers of internal financial sources in single company groups according to the indexes
CH and IN 01 and numbers of testing criteria.
CH-Index Internal sources (%)
Well-running business
Average businesses
Bad or no running businesses
Testing criteria
Test reliability
Index IN 01 Internal sources
(%)
Well-running businesses
Average businesses
Bad running businesses
Testing criteria
Test reliability
Indicator/year
average
average
average
F
P - value
2000
64,83
58,86
75,45
1,870
0,162
2001
70,18
73,21
64,35
0,480
0,624
2002
64,49
83,97
61,66
2,020
0,140
2003
65,87
79,15
70,26
0,580
0,563
2004
69,10
50,07
67,67
1,920
0,153
2005
65,39
40,66
53,73
2,830
0,065
2006
65,84
65,72
55,64
0,940
0,397
Indicator/year
average
average
average
F
P - value
2000
69,92
62,05
85,31
4,440
0,015
2001
72,43
66,06
63,80
0,460
0,630
2002
68,26
66,29
57,81
0,490
0,613
2003
80,21
63,26
72,16
1,270
0,285
2004
77,54
57,06
70,63
3,820
0,026
2005
67,65
56,31
48,10
2,150
0,123
2006
71,21
54,62
58,38
2,280
0,109
The volume of investment holdings also very significantly affects the amount of subsidies flowing into
agriculture resort posed to non-repayable foreign holdings source of financing, net cash flow as the
difference between revenues and expenses and profits of the enterprise as a core objective of business
activities that increase a sense of investment activities and business ensure the maintenance of long-term
competitiveness of the enterprise market as well as labour productivity growth, since it allows the
transformation of new scientific and technological knowledge into practice.
Other important factors affecting the volume of investment holdings includes depreciation, which, although
not for the enterprise newly established funding sources, but provides resources to finance the reproduction
of fixed assets in the enterprise. It should be noted that the rise in fixed assets in relation to inflation,
depreciation does not provide full funding for restoration of decommissioned fixed assets holdings,
suggesting that the reproductive effects of depreciation reaches a relatively low level. In terms of cash
flows, however, often represent a major depreciation, while a steady income - a source of internal financing.
Depreciation for the enterprise represents a cost, but also not to the establishment and the actual cash
expenditures, while their height depends on the degree of efficiency of business operations.
The level of investment activity also affects the ability of farms to use its funding to foreign sources,
particularly bank loans, which represent the dominant source of financing for their foreign investments.
Availability of bank credit for agricultural enterprises along with the price of resources for which the
enterprises can borrow these loans, is another important source of influencing the volume of investments
made.
CONCLUSION
The financial situation of enterprises provided financial analysis of the selected index ex-ante is also a
determining appropriate instrument and the amount of the investment activities of the undertakings.
Businesses which were evaluated on the basis of selected indices as slack or larger volume of investment
made in the development of its activities and maintain its existence as enterprises which are financially
sound and stable.
The volume of investment holdings is determined by a number of other factors, the most important of which
include: funding - non-repayable funding source, depreciation - a source of financing and the availability of
bank loans.
Creditworthy businesses are characterized by a slightly higher share of internal resources to finance their
investment projects in comparison with other groups of enterprises. On the other hand slack companies
enjoy a greater extent to finance their investments such bank loans, which confirms the ability of
creditworthy company makes a profit and so to a lesser extent from foreign sources of funding.
LITERATURE
[1] Annual reports of the analysed companies, 2000-2006
[2] SERENČÉŠ, P.; MAJERNÍK, M. 2009. Investičná činnosť poľnohospodárskych podnikov a jej
financovanie nástrojmi kapitálového trhu. Nitra: Slovenská poľnohospodárska univerzita v Nitre. 95 s.,
ISBN 978-80-552-0271-6 (vedecká monografia)
[3] BIELIK, P. et al. 2003. Trh cenných papierov a jeho vplyv na výkonnosť a konkurencieschopnosť
133
agropotravinárskych podnikov. Nitra: Slovenská poľnohospodárska univerzita v Nitre, 145 s. ISBN 808069-293-9
ADDRESS
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
Osvobození 699
686 04, Kunovice
134
THEORETICAL ISSUES OF KEY INNOVATION AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
COMPETENCE DEVELOPMENT IDENTIFICATION IN CZECH POPULATION
Antonín Malach1, Josef Malach2
1
2
University of Ostrava
Abstract: The subject of research project is finding of development of key competency in
inovation and entrepreneurship in the Czech population. After the analyse of current situation
and research results, it is necessary to make a theoretical and empirical model which provide
universal tool for diagnostic of the competence. Following empirical research allows to specify
qualitative and quantitave parametres of the competency. Development of the competency is
established by presumptive secondary evidence, e. g. measure of entrepreneurial activities in
regions, the number of issued Trade certificates etc. Present lack of research results can cause
problems during implementation of the national and european program plans. Present know
edge of that fact can be understood as an educational need. Ignorance of it can handicapped
the efective educational influence in terms of lifelong learning.
Keywords: key competency in inovation and entrepreneurship, diagnostic of the competence,
empirical research, parameters of the competence,
1. SUMMARY OF THE PRESENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE OF THE ISSUES IN THE
CONCERNED BRANCH OF SCIENCE
The present terminology for the analyzed issues of innovation and entrepreneurship competence is unstable
and subject to haphazard development. A number of different terms such as entrepreneurship,
entrepreneurial competences, entrepreneurial mindset, entrepreneurial spirit, sense of entrepreneurship,
entrepreneurial capacities, entrepreneurial habits, education for entrepreneurial attitudes and skills,
entrepreneurship education, etc. are used in this sphere. The terms innovation and entrepreneurship
competence in accordance with the nomenclature of European Union programme documents is used in the
grant application title. In addition to differences in the understanding and application of the terms due to
different approaches to and views of the issues, the terminological difficulties can be attributed also to the
differences in translations of foreign terms (“entrepreneurial spirit”, “entrepreneurial education”,
“entrepreneurship”, “personal enterprise”, “entrepreneurial behaviour”, etc.). The absence of a standard
definition of the concept of entrepreneurship results in an obscure content description, insufficient construct
measurement methodology and disparate and ambiguous approach to the entrepreneurship education and
entrepreneurship development1 The study and research of entrepreneurship naturally bring about a need to
answer three fundamental questions: What is entrepreneurship, how to evaluate and measure
entrepreneurship and how to develop entrepreneurship.
Gibb2 distinguishes between an ”entrepreneurial person” and an ”enterprising person”. The entrepreneurial
person is creative and initiative, inspires others and is able to do things in other way than the others. The
enterprising person is very similar to the entrepreneurial person from whom he or she differs by his or her
considering a business carried by himself or herself or actual carrying a business. The entrepreneurial
capacities are described as capacities creating the basic, necessary conditions, whether individual,
organizational or social, for an efficient entrepreneurial behaviour in the turbulent and global environment.
Many renowned authors such as Timmons (2007), Gibb (2002), etc. present the same opinion saying the
entrepreneurial economy will establish itself and be typical of the 21st century. It also responds and
corresponds to the social development trends such as globalization, high change frequency and intensity,
1
BLENKER, P, DREISLER, P., KJELDSEN, J. Entrepreneurship Education – the New Challenge Facing the Universities – A
framework for understanding and development of entrepreneurial university communities.
2
GIBB, A.A. In pursuit of a new ‘enterprise’ and ‘entrepreneurship’ paradigm for learning: creative destruction, new values, new
ways of doing things and new combinations of knowledge. International Journal of Management Reviews, 2002, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 23369.
135
growing uncertainty, interlinking of the problems solved, etc. However, it can establish itself provided the
knowledge will develop and the entrepreneurship and enterprise theory will be disseminated and applied.
Lukeš, Nový et al.3 try to distinguish the main approaches to the application of the concept of enterprise
based on definitions. Under the first approach the enterprise is understood in the sense of entrepreneurship,
i.e. something innovative and unique which creates value, is novel and singular. Then the term
entrepreneurship is applied. Under the other approach anybody owning or managing an enterprise is deemed
to be an entrepreneur - no matter how innovative he or she is, whether successful or not, whether his or her
company grows or only he or she is employed at it. In this case the term enterprise is applied.
Jünger and Fialová4 understand the entrepreneurship as a quality which can be employed not only in
enterprise but also in all spheres of human activity. They discuss the entrepreneurship of both inborn and
acquired nature.
P. Drucker5 handles the entrepreneurship as a practical activity and theoretical discipline rather than a
science or art. The entrepreneurship is not to be perceived only in relation to the enterprise and it should be
seen as a broadly exercisable ability or skill.
Mikoláš6 understands the entrepreneurship as a combination of a craft and the respective activity. An
entrepreneur is a man in a specific situation reflecting or searching for a specific and adequate need. In other
words, the entrepreneurship is a creative activity (application of a craft) leading to the satisfaction of real
material and immaterial as well as virtual (apparent) needs. It is an interconnection of positive potentials of
a man (human resources) at specific conditions with negative potentials (needs) of the surrounding world.
Three important factors - craft, activity and need for the specific potential - are thus involved.
The level of entrepreneurship competence exploration is not high in comparison, for example, with the
managerial competence. One of the authors dealing with the entrepreneurship competence is S. Caird7 who
lists four competence aspects: knowledge, performance, skill and psychological variables which relate to the
specific profession.
According to Caird the required knowledge and skills are contextual while the psychological variables can
be more generic. Caird distinguishes between daily competence aspects and competence aspects which are
determinative in differentiating highly enterprising persons from moderately enterprising persons. In
contrast to the moderately enterprising persons, the highly enterprising persons can manage complex and
diverse situations. In addition, different locations and companies require different competence degrees.
Although the Caird’s studies are an important contribution to the exploration of entrepreneurship
competence she states that “there is no clear understanding what is the meaning of entrepreneurship
competence” and this concept ultimately “poses a risk of meaning all or nothing”.
Following the definition of entrepreneurship as a key competence several entrepreneurship parameters and
measures were established. Apart from the psychological characteristics (self-efficiency, check-up location,
creativity, etc.), the following can be stated in particular: entrepreneurship intensity8, propensity to
entrepreneurship9, entrepreneurial orientation (thee components - proactivity, innovation, risk acceptance)10.
However, these parameters or tools lack a general acceptance and verification.
3
LUKEŠ, M. – NOVÝ, I. et al. Psychologie podnikání: Osobnost podnikatele a rozvoj podnikatelských dovedností [Psychology of
enterprise: Personality of entrepreneur and development of entrepreneurship skills]. Prague: Management Press, 2005. ISBN 80-7261125-9.
4
JÜNGER, J., FIALOVÁ, V. Podnikání a podnik I. [Enterprise and company I]. Ostrava: VŠP, a.s., 2004. ISBN 80-86764-07-9.
5
DRUCKER, P.F. Inovace a podnikavost. Praxe a principy [Innovation and entrepreneurship. Practice and principles]. Prague.
Management Press, 1993. ISBN 80-85603-29-2.
6
MIKOLÁŠ, Z. Podnikání a podnik B. [Enterprise and company B]. Ostrava: VŠP, a.s. 2006. ISBN 80-86764-54-0.
7
E.g. CAIRD, S. Enterprise Competencies: An Agenda for Research. In: Journal of European Industrial Training, 1990, Vol. 14, No. 7,
pp. 3-9. ISSN: 0309-0590.
CAIRD, S. Problems with the Identification of Enterprise Competency with the Implications for Assessment and Development. In:
Management Education and Development, 1992, Vol. 23, Part 1.
8
HOANG, H., GIMENO, J. Entrepreneurial identity. In Entrepreneurship. Black-well Encyclopaedia of Management. Blackwell
Publishing, Mulden, 2006, pp. 87-91. ISBN 0-631-23317-2.
9
See reference 7
10
RAUCH, A. Entrepreneurial Orientation and Business Performance: An Assessment of Past Research and Suggestion for the
Future. In Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, May 2009, Vol. 33, Issue 3, pp. 761-787. ISSN 1042-2587.
136
The entrepreneurship education is subject to intensive research efforts. Specialized magazines (e.g..
International Journal of Entrepreneurship Education) emerged, there are advances in the research in
enterprise and entrepreneurship education11 and monographs12. However, most of the research is focused on
the exploration of entrepreneurship in the narrow sense (company establishment and management). The
attention paid to the entrepreneurship education didactics is increasingly higher also in the Czech republic13.
The need for entrepreneurship as a key competence is referred to in many conceptual and strategic
documents both at the European and national levels such as:

European Commission Memorandum on lifelong learning (2000)

Human Resource Development Strategy for the Czech Republic (version 2003)

Commission proposal based on recommendation called “Key Competencies for lifelong learning”
(2005)

Implementing the Community Lisbon programme: Fostering entrepreneurial mindsets through
education and learning (2006)

Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on key
competencies for lifelong learning (2006/962/EC)

Lifelong Learning Strategy of the Czech Republic (2007)
Apart from the highlighted importance of entrepreneurship development, some of the documents listed
above present also the definitions of entrepreneurship.
The Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on key
competencies for lifelong learning (2006) characterizes the entrepreneurship capacities as the ”sense of
initiative and entrepreneurship” being understood as abilities of an individual to put ideas into practice
which requires creativity and capability of introducing innovations, bear risks, plan and manage projects
with the aim to accomplish certain goals. This capacity is beneficial to all in daily life both at home and in
society, helps employees to understand the context of their work and enables them to grasp opportunities
being a basis for more specific skills and knowledge needed by the entrepreneurs carrying out social or
commercial activities.
The necessary knowledge connected with this capacity include recognition of opportunities for personal,
professional and/or commercial activities including the knowledge of general aspects which create the
context in which people live and work such as general understanding of economic mechanisms, chances and
problems faced by the employer or organization. Individuals should also be aware of the ethical position of
companies and how the companies can set a good example by, for instance, fair trading or operating as a
social enterprise.
The skills are related to active project management (which requires skills such as planning, organization,
management, leadership and delegation, analysis, communication, negotiation, evaluation and reporting)
and ability to work both alone and in teams. Of importance is the ability to discern strengths and
weaknesses of people, assess risks and, if appropriate, bear the risks.
In the perspective of attitudes the sense of enterprise is characteristic by initiative, activity, independence
and innovation in the personal and social life as well as at work. The motivation and determination to
accomplish goals, whether personal or shared with others and/or working goals are also necessary.
Many phenomena and relations in the field of innovation and entrepreneurship competence still scattered
over many social and humanitarian sciences (e.g. economic sciences, enterprise sciences, management,
sociology, psychology and education sciences) lack an adequate theoretical exploration which leads to the
following statements:
11
E.g. BÉCHARD, J.-P. – GRÉGOIRE, D. Entrepreneurship Education Research Revisited: The Case of Higher Education. In
Academy of Management Learning and Education, 2005, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 22-43. ISSN: 1537-260X.
12
FAYOLLE, A (ed.). Handbook of Research in Entrepreneurship Education, Volume 1. A General Perspective. Cheltenham: Edward
Elgar, 2007, ISBN 978 1 84542 106 9.
13
E.g. MALACH, J. Didaktika podnikatelské výchovy jako nová vědní disciplína [Entrepreneurial education didactics as a new
branch of science]. In Proceeding from the conference Entrepreneurship – Natural Part of Education Process. Ostrava: Business School
Ostrava plc, 2005. ISBN 80-686764-30-3. pp. 34-42.
137
No general theoretical model of the innovation and entrepreneurship competence which would identify all
necessary components of the competence and their mutual links neither a specific version of the model for
national environment is available.
No internal conditions (aptitudes and acquired qualities) and external (personal, time, technological, etc.)
conditions which can significantly modify the development of the studied competence are set.
No adequate (standardized) tools for the identification (diagnostics and autodiagnostics) of internal
requirements for the development of this competence and determination of the development rate both in
quantitative and qualitative terms are available.
No research providing the characteristics of the population (divided into groups according to age,
profession, education, gender and territory) in this area using a valid, reliable and efficient tool have been
made.
There has been no research focused on the identification of added value of education in the concerned area
which would provide answers to the question how efficient can the attempts for general application of the
goals of education for innovation and entrepreneurship be.
2 OUTLINE FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Outline for further exploration and problem solving consists in the execution of a broad theoreticalempirical exploration of the key innovation and entrepreneurship competence construct. Based on a new
theoretical model of this construct a diagnostic tool for the exploration of the construct development in
defined groups of Czech population can be created. This tool could provide documents enabling to lay down
a number of measures including the educational ones based on the objectified educational needs for
theoretically defined basic lifelong learning types (formal, non-formal and informal) identified using this
tool.
The research team will endeavour to accomplish the following objectives based on the
actual state of knowledge:







Analyze important theoretical approaches and their principal paradigms in order to define the content
of the studied construct in the selected branches of science.
Develop a theoretical model of innovation and entrepreneurship competence reflecting the attempts
to identify the competence components within the paradigms identified up to know.
Verify the model validity at real conditions of national environment and develop a theoreticalempirical model reflecting the specifics of the actual historically-conditioned development of the
explored quality of individual and status of population at European/national conditions.
Prepare a (quasi)standardized diagnostic tool enabling to determine both quantitative and qualitative
parameter of the innovation and entrepreneurship competence status among the members of the
population living in the Czech Republic and assess the effect of internal and external factors on the
competence formation.
Conduct a representative research in the status (development) of the innovation and entrepreneurship
competence in the Czech Republic exploring the motivation factors connected with the competence
application in social and economic practice.
Make a comparison of the findings from the research with similar findings from foreign research
efforts, if available, and identify specific qualitative/quantitative characteristics of the national
population.
Define the primary functions of the theoretical-empirical model of the studied construct in economy,
sociology, psychology and educational sciences.
The project will be implemented applying the following methods to accomplish the objectives.

A cooperation of public and private universities focused on entrepreneurship and enterprise will be
used to secure high theoretical expertise of the research team and adequately deep insight of the team
in practical issues.

Project management of a team made up of experts from 4 universities will be applied.

The development of the theoretical as well as the modified theoretical-empirical competence model
will be based on the analysis of available literature and results of previous exploration made by the
research team members.
138





The project implementation results will be published in professional journals and at conferences
from time to time in order to obtain a feedback and other suggestions for the implementation of the
following stages.
The researchers will make use of foreign contacts, internships, experience as well as old literature to
view the studied issues in a broader perspective using historically comparative research methods.
The models and diagnostic research tool will be selected applying creative, innovative task solution
techniques using theoretically formulated team roles.
The empirical research will be performed based on the application of qualitative and quantitative
research methods (e.g. using the strategy of anchored theory, questionnaire surveys, analysis of
activity results, etc.).
The research data will be processed using the existing ICT equipment emphasizing the application of
statistic procedures in SPSS software environment.
REFERENCES
[1]
Oslo agenda for entrepreneurship education in Europe. 2006. Available at
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/entrepreneurship/support_measures/training_education/oslo.htm
[2]
Bílá kniha terciárního vzdělávání. První verze určená k veřejné diskusi [White paper on tertiary
education. Version one for public discussion]. Prague, May 2008. Available at:
http://www.msmt.cz/uploads/bila_kniha/BK_k_diskusi_tisk.pdf.
[3]
DRUCKER, P.F. Výzvy managementu pro 21. století [Management challenges for 21th century].
Prague: Management Press, 2001. ISBN 80-7261-021-X.
[4]
Education at a Glance. Paris: OECD. OECD. 2007c.
[5]
ELEFTHERIOU, A., MALACH, J., SLOVAK, S., DURDA, L. at al. Teach&ESPRIT. Developing
Entrepreneurial Spirit in European Teachers Training for Vocational Education. Kasel, GW, 2008.
[6]
European Pact for Youth: Annex 1 to the Conclusions of Presidency of European Council, 22 and 23
March, 2005.
[7]
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dovedností [Psychology of enterprise: Personality of entrepreneur and development of
entrepreneurship skills]. Prague: Management Press, 2005. ISBN 80-7261-125-9.
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to European Union]. Prague: Grada Publishing, 2005. ISBN 80-247-0906-6.
[13] MALACH, A. Podnikání s podporou Evropské unie – iluze a realita [Enterprising with the support
from European Union – illusions and reality]. Prague: NEWTON College, 2005. ISBN 80-7226-4117.
[14] MALACH, A., MALACH, J. Vzdělávání jako faktor rozvoje podnikání [Education as an enterprise
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v evropských zemích. Příručka a materiály [Developing entrepreneurial spirit in European teachers
training for vocational education. Handbook and materials]. Ostrava: Pedagogical Faculty of Ostrava
University, 2007, 113 pages. ISBN 978-80-7368-494-5.
[16] MALACH, J., DURDA, L. Didaktika podnikatelské výchovy [Entrepreneurial education didactics].
Pedagogical Faculty of Ostrava University, Ostrava, 2007.
[17] MALACH, J. Podnikatelská výchova jako oblast podpory Evropským sociálním fondem
[Entrepreneurial education as an area supported by the European Social Fund]. In Proceedings from
the conference European Entrepreneurs Forum 2005, Prague 22.9.2005. 9 pages. ISBN 80-86883-531.
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Entrepreneurial Education. In Proceedings from the international conference Education in
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Entrepreneurial Education. The New Educational Review, 2006, Vol. 10, No. 3-4, pp. 203-218.
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University of Ostrava, Ostrava, 2008. ISBN 978-80-7368-552-2.
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AUTHORS
Doc. Ing. Antonín Malach, CSc.,
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
Czech Republic
Email: [email protected]
Doc. PhDr. Josef Malach, CSc.,
University of Ostrava
Pedagogical faculty
Department of Education and Adult Education
Mlýnská 5
701 03 Moravská Ostrava
Czech Republic
140
MEASUREMENT OF UNCERTAINTY IN MANAGERIAL DECISION MAKING
Milan Marček
Silesian University
Abstract: The paper is concerned with measuring and assessment of risks in managerial
decision-making. It builds upon economic information entropy as a degree of uncertainty,
which is converted into the concept of risk expressed in terms of probability and using
confidence intervals of the predicted quantities. The paper explains the relation of a degree of
risk expressed by the classical information measure, bit, by the concept of confidence intervals,
or possibly by the standard deviation. When making decisions, the manager is interested not
only in the quantitatively expressed value of risk with the use of forecasting models, but mainly
in the impact of decrease/increase of decision-making risk expressed by the effect, i.e.
profit/loss caused by such a decision to achieve targets. Expressing or measuring uncertainty
using the standard deviation is considered.
Keywords: Confidence interval, entropy, prediction models, neural networks, managerial
decision,
1. INTRODUCTION
Every piece of information which the manager has at their disposal is overcast with uncertainty or entropy,
as rooted in information sciences. This phenomenon is present throughout the whole process of managerial
decision-making. Managers often find themselves in difficult situation due to entropy in the decisionmaking process. They realize the responsibility they have for the consequences of their decisions. The only
way of reducing entropy of the whole decision-making process is making the information which serves as
the basis for making decisions more precise. Evidence shows that it is possible to make this information
more precise by a suitable choice and use of forecasting models based on statistical methods, soft
computing and artificial intelligence methods. In comparison with the manager's expert estimates, these
models based on statistical and soft computing methods or artificial intelligence methods are capable of
providing information in the form of forecasts of quantities with an acceptable degree of uncertainty. The
manager using these forecasts is able to make better decisions, i.e. such decisions whose risks in achieving
targets are minimized.
Mathematical statistics [5], [21], offers the theory of point estimates and confidence intervals. The manager
can set and influence the span of these confidence intervals. The confidence interval indicates the span of
possible values into which falls the future estimate of the forecasted quantity with the chosen probability
defined by the manager. This way the limits of the possible future values are set. Point or interval estimates
of the future values of various economic indicators are important for the strategic manager's decisionmaking. When determining information entropy in decision-making, it is useful to focus on how the
confidence interval for the forecasted economic quantity can be made more precise, i.e. narrowed by using
the forecasting model. A significant prerequisite for the application of such a model in management is that
apart from the increased reliability of decision-making, the model output results in entropy reduction, which
makes decision-making easier and less weighted with risk. The fact or statement that entropy reduction
facilitates the manager's decision-making is not sufficient. The crucial factor is how specifically the entropy
change manifests itself in the consequences of the decision. Not only will it be “easier” to make the
decision, but more importantly the decision will be more effective in the long run.
One of the approaches to understanding entropy as a degree of uncertainty in forecasting models is
understanding it as the standard deviation σ of the forecasted quantity or process [13], [18]. The standard
deviation as a degree of uncertainty, or risk, of forecasted quantity values estimates is equivalent to the
statistical degree of accuracy of the forecast defined as Root Mean Square Error of the forecast [16], [15],
[17], [18]. This approach is used with measuring risks of prognoses of many economic and financial
forecasting models, and in forecasting models of economic time series such as Value at Risk (VaR) [23] ,
[24], methods based on the extreme value theory [19], [7] and Lévy models [1], [2].
141
For management, the approach based on the statistical analysis of the dispersion of the quantity values, or
on the standard deviation analysis, is the most comprehensible way of representing entropy. It need to be
stated that the standard deviation does not reflect entropy in its true substance as uncertainty which is
indicated in bits (binary digits). On the other hand, uncertainty is closely related to how precise are the
estimates of the future values of quantities that managers have at their disposal. The less precise the
estimate, the larger the standard deviation, and the higher the uncertainty that the information is weighted
with. This view of entropy does not articulate it in its true sense, however, it expresses very well its inner
essence and the mutual relation of entropy and decision-making.
The tasks dealing with the influence of information entropy on managerial decision-making have not been
described in literature yet. An important prerequisite is whether the calculation of the degree of entropy
itself has a sufficient informative value for managers in order for them to follow it during the process of
decision-making. If it were only a very abstract value insufficiently explained and vaguely described in
literature, it would hardly be applied in the process of managerial decision-making, where the data serving
as the basis for managerial decision-making must be relevant and clearly presented. Due to the possibility of
achieving effects by applying forecasting models in managerial decision-making, an exceptionally
interesting, topical and supporting tool offers itself. Our motivation for elaborating it in theory was the fact
that to this day there is no theory that would describe the way to reduce or possibly remove entropy in
management and to use it to calculate effects.
At present, entropy as a quantity is described in several publications. They are publications from the field of
physics, electrotechnology, informatics, information theory, and statistical process assessment. Our recent
research was concerned with the elaboration of the missing theory of entropy as a category of uncertainty
and risk in managerial decision-making. Decision-making is one of the basic human activities, whose
quality influences the result of the subsequent activities. Mastering managerial roles is a key factor in the
successful achievement of targets.
The objective of the paper is to point out specific outlines of entropy and risk categories, determine their
content in managerial decision-making as a category which conditions the ways and methods of
management not only at the stage of decision-making but also the impacts at the stage of implementation of
the decision, where the consequences of these decisions (effects or losses) will manifest themselves.
The issue of measuring risk in management and its accompanying phenomena is divided into four chapters
in the present paper. Chapter two is devoted to characterizing risk and its manifestation in decision-making
in uncertainty conditions. In the third chapter, the phases of an entropy reduction procedure in the manager's
decision-making is designed and characterized. In the fourth chapter, we mention about the possibility of
expressing or measuring uncertainty using the standard deviation.
2. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN UNCERTAINTY A AND RISK IN MANAGERIAL DECISION
MAKING
Managerial decision-making is understood as the reaction of the manager to the incurred problems, i.e. it is
a process of analyzing and thinking, the result of which is a decision. There are many approaches to
decision-making. On the level of lower management usually involves theories and tools such as linear and
non-linear programming, dynamic programming, game theory, queuing theory, inventory theory,
probability theory, renewal theory, graph theory etc. Decision making on the level of top management is
significantly influenced by time. Top management uses tools not only from management but also from other
science branches such as mathematical statistics, fuzzy set theory, econometrics, operational research, etc.
Top managers use these tools to obtain the most precise estimates of the future development of quantities
and processes possible. These estimates represent important information on which managers base their
decisions.
Specific choice of tools and models for decision-making depends on whether the manager has precise and
complete or imprecise and incomplete information at their disposal. The complexity of managerial decisionmaking relates to decision-making with incomplete information. Most of the real systems can only be
described incompletely, i.e. with information which cannot be formally expressed by unequivocally set
parameters. This is uncertain information then. In practice, according to [20], there are mainly two types of
such information: According to the first type, uncertain information makes it impossible to exactly
determine the future behaviour of the examined system. This type of uncertainty is called stochastic, and it
142
can usually be modelled using the probability theory. The second type of uncertainty is connected with the
description or formulation of the actual meaning of the phenomena or statements about them. This is
semantic uncertainty. Natural language words semantics with uncertainty, i.e. with meanings of words and
individual statements not being exact, is typical of natural language. This uncertainty has the character of
possibility rather than probability, and it is most often modelled by fuzzy systems [9], [4], [10]; [12], [22.
As far as decision-making with risk is concerned, this is the case of decision-making where actual
information about real systems is uncertain, and it is not important if the uncertainty is caused by
incomplete information about the system's behaviour, or if it is semantic uncertainty. In the further text, in
accordance with [8], the risk connected with managerial decision-making will be modelled using probability
models and understood as a statistical term of the expected value between two extreme states of decision,
i.e. with full uncertainty and decision with certainty.
3. MANAGERIAL DECISION-MAKING: INFORMATION ENTROPY REDUCTION
As it was mentioned in the preceding chapter, within the managerial decision-making process entropy
indicates the degree of information uncertainty, and thus also the degree of risk of achieving targets.
Information serves to the manager as the basis for their decisions-making. To minimize the decision risk,
i.e. to minimize the negative impacts of the decision and to maximize the benefits of the individual
decisions, it is extremely important to get to know the future state of the economic environment. Economic
environment on the micro level is characterized by different economic indicators that the manager monitors.
The indicators are for example: the development of sales and production of the company and the
competitors, the number of competitors, the development of allocation of branches and competing
companies, the inflationary trend, the development of wages, the development of prices of raw materials
necessary for production, financial markets development, oil and energy prices development, the
development of real estate prices, and the currency rate in the countries of sales and business partners. It is
impossible to precisely estimate the long-term development of these indicators on the level of strategic
decision-making. That is why the decisions are overcast with considerable uncertainty – entropy.
There are two ways in which the value of information for the manager is significantly increased. The first
way is obtaining the sufficient amount of information in time and with the content that the manager can use
for their decision-making. The second way is increasing the precision of the estimates of the future values of
quantities and of the output of processes occurring in economy. Every manager can make an intuitive
estimate based on their experience by looking at the present and past development. These pragmatic
estimates based on monitoring the previous process development offer valuable base information for
decision-making. The estimates are also based on the information about the impacts of the factors which
affect the development of the monitored process. There can be more of these factors simultaneously. The
manager should be able to incorporate the impacts of the factors into their estimate. An estimate obtained
this way is in the further text referred to as an expert estimate. Many expert estimates are made without any
mathematical or other scientific model procedures or algorithms.
The knowledge and tools of different scientific branches can be used to improve the quality of the decisionmaking process in strategic management. There are several effective tools which can increase the density of
information and thus reduce the risk in decision-making. However, it is not necessary to mention the tools
in this context. If information is the main element of decision-making, it is necessary to emphasise obtaining
and storing data about the monitored process. Subsequently, the data that will be relevant to the decisionmaking itself need to be selected. Sometimes it is necessary to obtain such information by extracting it from
several kinds of data. Only then follows the elaboration of a prognosis which the manager will be able to
use to compare individual solution alternatives and make the actual decision. In the process of decisionmaking itself needs to be included a quantitative estimate of risk e.g. based on entropy, and also the
calculation of effect/losses of risk reduction/increase. Such a process of risk reduction in managerial
decision-making can be expressed in the following blocks [Fraňo, 2010].

Collecting data

Data extraction

Storing data on electronic media

Filtering required information from the data

Modelling and forecast calculation with forecast algorithm

Entropy (uncertainty) calculation

Economic result calculation
143
The first four blocks represent activities connected with collecting and storing data. In company information
systems such activities are carried out by tools known as OLAP (On-Line-Analytical_Processing)
technology, ETL (Extraction, Transformation, Loading) and ETT (Extraction, Transformation, Transport)
tools
(see
also
http://datamining.xf.cz/view.php?cisloclanku=2002102810,
http://datamining.xf.cz/view.php?cisloclanku=2002102808). The relevant data extraction block is concerned
with obtaining important data and the information about the relations among them. Such information is
obtained by statistical analyses known from descriptive statistics and with the support of graphic tools. It is
also necessary to eliminate the data which are redundant for the given process. Sometimes this elimination
is easy and it can be done pragmatically. At other times it is more complex and the manager cannot reliably
determine which type and kind of data will be used in the final forecasting model and which will not.
Relying on intuition could be too risky. In such case it is possible to use information systems working on the
basis of knowledge mining [3] and [11]. These systems enable the manager to extract information from the
collected data, and they specify which quantities which are important for management and which are not.
For instance, for the assessment of the impact of different factors on sea pollution in a specific geographical
area in a selected bay, the following quantities could be taken into consideration: sea temperature, air
temperature, sea current direction, sea transport density, oil prices, tourism volume in the residences in the
bay surroundings, moon phase, sunshine intensity, etc. Programmes working on the principle of knowledge
mining can determine which of the previously mentioned input quantities will affect the monitored output
quantity – sea pollution, and which of the quantities are not necessary to take into consideration. Similarly
in an economic process, which is for example the development of employment, it is possible to monitor
more quantities such as the development of tax burden on entrepreneurial subjects, individual political
parties preferences, country rating from the viewpoint of attractiveness for foreign investors, level of
education, the minimum wage fixed by the government, inflation rate, average savings of citizens, etc.
These are cases of prediction models with multidimensional data, where the manager needs to have enough
experience to be able to select relevant input of the forecasting systems. The manager can again use the
supporting tools working on the principle of „knowledge mining“ [14].
In the modelling and forecast block, before making the decision itself, the manager must select a suitable
forecasting model for determining the forecast. By selecting a suitable forecasting model according to the
character of the monitored process, the manager can positively influence the quality of the forecast e.g. by
increasing the precision of the prognosis. The manager can be inclined towards a favourite model which
they subjectively prefer to the other ones. They can possibly use a single software application which uses
only one specific forecasting model to elaborate a forecast. This can be considerably limiting when
searching for an optimal forecasting model. In [6] can be found recommendations of managers who suggest
for every type of process a suitable forecasting model which can best forecast the given type of process.
Risk estimate block is important for comparison of the degree of how the attitude and the situation of the
manager is changing during their decision-making. Risk change (reduction) affects the quality of the
decision, i.e. entropy reduction must produce the decision effect. Entropy and thus also the degree of risk
does not have to be expressed numerically, e.g. in bit units, but it can be expressed implicitly if the change
shows in effects. In any case, it is better to determine the degree of risks numerically if the decisions are
made under the conditions of stochastic type of uncertain information, or verbally if the non-numerical
information is formulated in natural language, i.e. in decision-making conditions in which uncertainty has
the character of possibility rather than probability. Numerical value of risk can be used for comparison of
suitability of individual forecasting models or methods which are used to produce forecasts of future values.
Different procedures were suggested for calculating entropy and thus also risk assessment. E.g. in [17]
quantification of risk in forecasting models is based on the analysis of variance forecast errors. In [10] the
fuzzy set theory is used for calculation of forecast risks, etc. In the following chapter, the procedure of risk
calculation on the basis of confidence intervals based on the theory of mathematical statistics is introduced.
The last block is a block in which effect caused by entropy change (benefit or losses) is estimated.
Economic quantities such as profit, turnover increase, cost savings or even economy in time are
comprehensible quantities for every manager in every sphere of management. These quantities are used to
compare individual alternatives of decisions. How the decision effect calculation will follow up the
preceding forecast will depend on how costs are determined in a specific activity. The costs function will be
different in solving tasks where e.g. stochastic inventory models are used, and it will be different in case of
profit calculation in securities trade. A specific way of calculating effects of entropy reduction on practical
example is given in [ek časopis].
144
4. ENTROPY AS THE STANDARD DEVIATION
In the introductory chapter, we mentioned the possibility of expressing or measuring uncertainty using the
standard deviation. In this chapter, we will specify its use on the basis of the content given in the previous
chapters.
The standard deviation is used in literature as the degree of uncertainty and risk [24]. It is a further view of
entropy which has its reason. As far as relevancy is concerned, it is probably the easiest and, for managerial
practice, the most comprehensible way of expressing and quantification of entropy. While the entropy
indicated in the information unit bit is at present a still relatively abstract and almost non-used degree for
expressing risk in the sphere of managerial decision-making. Entropy in the sense of the standard deviation
has a higher informative value for managers. Entropy expressed by the standard deviation has one
drawback, which is unit incompatibility. Entropy in the sense of uncertainty is indicated in bits. Despite this
fact, as we could see in the given examples, it is easier to work with entropy as the standard deviation. It is
possible to state that reduction of entropy of the forecast system was achieved when its standard deviation
of forecast errors was reduced. It can be clearly seen in expression (1). In technical systems, rule 3 σ is used
which in the figurative meaning provides information about which interval the forecast will almost certainly
fall into. Therefore, it provides certainty instead of uncertainty. But it is a certainty which will not push the
manager forward with his decision-making if there is a big standard deviation. The real solution leading to
the support of decision-making is reducing entropy of the forecast system by using a better forecasting
model which will achieve lesser variability of prognosis errors. Described in [18], on the basis of prognosis
errors analysis, is a method of searching for such a forecast horizon for which entropy and thus also
prognosis risk is minimal.
5. CONCLUSION
In managerial decision-making, risk is the central category based on which the effects of individual variants
are assessed, and subsequently the final decision is chosen from several variants. In the present paper we
showed the procedure of quantitative assessment of risk based on probability terms using confidence
intervals for point estimates of economic quantities. We build upon measuring uncertainty based on
information entropy indicated in bits and on measuring based on prognosis confidence interval, where
uncertainty is expressed in terms of the span of the confidence interval and the probability that by using
forecasting model the set prognosis limits around the expected value will not be exceeded. Both approaches
to measuring uncertainty were assessed from the viewpoint of utilization in managerial decision-making
using forecasting models based on an expert estimate, statistical models, and neural networks models.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The work on this contribution was supported by the grant GACR P402/12/0070.
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AUTHOR
Milan Marček
Silesian University
Institute of Computer Science
Bezruč. Square 13
746 01 Opava
Czech Republic
146
DEVELOPMENT
OF PRIVATE RIGHTS IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC -
FORTHCOMING CHANGES TO THE COMMERCIAL CODE
František Hurbiš, Alena Hanzová
Abstract: Law as a science discipline is not stagnant, but constantly evolving organism, which
must respond to all social, political and economic changes that the society which, respectively.
the entire world community is undergoing. This situation occurred in the Czech Republic after
1989 and from that time our legal system is undergoing constant improvement, which is still
also enhanced by the adoption of CR to the European Union in 2004 and the obligation to meet
our commitments to the European Union.
Keywords: private law, codification, revision, modernization, business, natural and legal
persons INTRODUCTION
Private law includes the rights and obligations arising from the mutual contact of persons who have equal
status and their free will. Private law arises in the private sector, so-called "bottom". Its main source is not
law, but free will, which is usually reflected in the contract. The Civil Code opens a very broad framework
of free initiative of individuals and their right to organize their private life according to their own and strive
for happiness. Most provisions of the Civil Code is dispositive, it means that they apply when the parties
will not affect another. Good will is generally limited by considerations of good morals, public order, honor
and dignity of persons. This means that it is against good morals, can not contractually agree. The legal
status of a person as an individual, including the modification of rights exclusively and logically connected
with his person, is a key theme of the first part of the Civil Code. The private law is also the Commercial
Code, a recodification currently in the process. Compared to the current Commercial Code does not include
new legislation law obligations, which will be moved to the new Civil Code.
THE NEW LAW REPLACES THE COMMERCIAL CODE
The new law removes the frequent intersection between business and civil law. It will have a short name
"law of business corporations" for entrepreneurs and brings several changes, clarified terminology and
innovation in the form of a so-called influential people.
Government Legislative Council has just approved a new law that would significantly affect business law.
New Testament at this point goes to the government, which together with the parliament will decide about
his fate. Starting pay would be the earliest in 2013 and will replace the current form of the Commercial
Code, which currently is undergoing amendments. The law is not entirely new. The former government of
Mirek Topolanek already talked about it in 2009 and at the same time, it was already working on the current
Justice Minister Jiri Pospisil. He said the law: "The law will contain essentially just corporate law, which
governs the creation, operation and termination of commercial companies and cooperatives. Treaty
obligations, which are present in the Commercial Code and Civil Code, there is a dualism, where the
problem arises in practice, will be removed by the law of contract is just and only just in the Civil Code. "
EXPLANATION OF SOME NEW CONCEPTS FORTHCOMING CODE
Business Corporation: under this term to hide as a company, that is personal and capital, including
European companies and associations, and cooperatives.
Influential person: respect of each person using his influence in the business corporation, directly or
indirectly affect the behavior of business corporations, responsible for the damage, in connection with the
conduct of the business corporation or its shareholders suffered. This inter alia means that if the head of the
company too much risk, may bankrupt the company to come and your personal property.
The concept of an influential person is found in parts of the Act, which refers to a business group. This is
147
the current version of the Commercial Code defines who as majority owner, or the control person. These
new dates just added an influential person who will be in companies liable for their actions. The proposal
aims to protect a damaged company or cooperative, their shareholders and creditors. It is this influential
person will be liable for the fulfillment of debts, which, for reasons affecting not be satisfied. Heads of
companies will have to move each of his well think twice, do not have to pay the debts of their own. While
the law is mindful of the conditions under which it will be possible to break free from the obligation to pay
for any damage, it may be difficult to achieve these conditions.
Deposit into a limited liability company:
Another novelty is the minimum deposit in a company with limited liability. Currently, it is necessary to
create a capital of 200 000 crowns and one to five years to repay, the newly might only need a crown. The
proposal is based on French and German model law under which so opens the possibility for setting up
more such companies, but once again strengthen the role of creditors.
New provisions and rules and therefore introduced a so-called test of insolvency. The company will not be
able to provide any benefits, if it would cause a relapse. Creditors will thus secure the protection, in which
no amount of reliance on fictional books, but the real worth of the assets and liability of directors.
CONCLUSION
The globalized world of shorter distances, but the freedom of movement of people also brings new
phenomena and therefore they must respond to our legal norms, especially the civil code. The proposed
amendment to the Civil Code certainly contribute among others to greater legal certainty of citizens who are
often unwittingly become the subjects and any legal relations. The company has for years been calling for
such change and the European Union strictly ensure that their standards are mainstreamed into the legal
systems of individual Member States. Czech Republic, which is often criticized for the slow performance of
binding instructions from the EU this step also contributes to another important approximation and
harmonization of our legislation with EU legislation and other Member States.
The proposed changes in commercial law is closely related to changes in civil law. This does not mean that
the legislation relationship between companies and their managers were quite right. Liability for damage in
case of liability for damage manager would continue to managed mode the Commercial Code.
REFERENCES:
[1] Plums, J et al. Civil Code. Comment. Part I. 1 Ed. London: C. Beck, H., 2008. 2336 p.
[2] Knapp, V. Czechoslovak socialist system of law in the history of forty years. First Ed. New York:
Lawyer, 1985. 445 p.
[3] The development of private law [online]. [cit. 20.01.2011]. Available from WWW:
http://www.komora.cz/Files/PripominkovaniZakonu/Materialy/188_oduvodneni.doc
http://obcanskyzakonik.justice.cz/cz/obecne-o-zakoniku.html
http://www.podnikatel.cz/clanky/rok-2012-prinasi-smrst-zakonnych-zmen/?ic=kolotoc-header&icc=01
ADDRESS:
JUDr. FrantišekHurbiš
The European Polytechnic Institute, Ltd.
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
tel: 572 549 018
fax: 572 548 788
ThDr. Mgr. Alena Hanzová, Th.D.
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
tel: 572 549 018
fax: 572 548 788
148
VÝVOJ PRÁVNÍHO PROSTŘEDÍ PRO PODNIKÁNÍ V ZAHRANIČNÍM OBCHODU
(…A NEJEN V PŘÍHRANIČNÍCH OBLASTECH)
Pavel Matoušek
Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci
Abstrakt: V příspěvku je popsána a analyzována situace v podnikání z hlediska administrativní
předpisové náročnosti. U menších a středních podnikatelů, charakteristických pro příhraniční
regiony ČR, je tato předpisová náročnost vlivem velmi zatěžujícím, náročným na speciální
znalosti a v případě chyb, hrozícím sankcemi. Je reálnou brzdou rozvoje podnikatelských
aktivit. Navíc byrokracie, předpisy Evropské unie mají dlouhodobou tendenci početně i
rozsahem dále růst. Cílem pro pozitivní budoucnost Evropské unie by měla být snaha
optimalizovat administrativní náročnost podnikání, a zmenšovat počet předpisů a jejich rozsah
na skutečně jen nezbytnou míru.
Klíčová slova: Celní předpisy, intrakomunitární obchod, Intrastat, právní předpisy, statistika,
úřední věstník EU, zahraniční obchod EU,
Celá lidská existence od nejprimitivnějších forem až po současnou přetechnizovanou společnost je jen a jen
o zajištění a uspokojování lidských potřeb. Činnosti zabezpečující tento cíl se postupně vyvinuly od činnosti
individuální až po činnosti zabezpečující potřeby celých společenských komunit do formy podnikatelské
činnosti. Podnikatelská činnost ať jakéhokoliv zaměření, se uskutečňuje v celé řadě forem a typů
podnikatelských subjektů, ale vždy a všude na světě se tyto podnikatelské subjekty, velmi zjednodušeně,
rozdělují na tři základní skupiny:
a) velké podnikatelské subjekty (velká ekonomická síla, dlouhodobá existenční stabilita, složitost a
těžkopádnost řízení a rozhodování, vysoká setrvačnost zaměření činnosti, relativně malý počet
podnikatelských subjektů),
b) střední podnikatelské subjekty (vysoká flexibilita činnosti, řízení, variabilní stav existence, vysoký
počet existujících podnikatelských subjektů),
c) malé podnikatelské subjekty (malá ekonomická síla, vysoká specializace činností a s tím spojená
nízká flexibilita činnosti, nejistý stav existence, relativně vysoký počet existujících subjektů
podnikání)
Velké ekonomické subjekty sice mají velkou sílu ekonomickou i finanční, ale postrádají díky své velikosti a
složitosti organizace potřebnou pružnost v reakci na krizové jevy, což představuje možnost ztrátového
provozu i po relativně dlouhou dobu. Tedy to znamená možnost vzniku velkých ztrát a to nejen pro samotný
podnikatelský subjekt, ale i pro společnost, stát ve formě nízkého odvodu daní. Navíc krizový stav subjektu
může trvat i dlouhou dobu, protože takový podnikatelský subjekt díky své velikosti, počtu pracovních sil,
díky hrozbě vzniku nezaměstnanosti v oblasti, regionu může počítat i s falešnou solidaritou společnosti.
Umělá podpora společnosti. , regionu, státu, takovému krizovému podnikatelskému subjektu může způsobit
dlouhodobé krizové přežívání bez potřebných protikrizových opatření a tím tato podpora ještě dále zvyšuje
konečnou ztrátu, která se tak dotýká přímo i společnosti. Střední podnikatelské subjekty na krizové jevy
jsou sice citlivé, ale reagují díky své operativní jednoduché organizaci velmi rychle a pružně. Jsou schopny
rychlé restrukturalizace, změny výrobního programu a tím jsou schopny zcela eliminovat ztráty nebo
alespoň je minimalizovat. Nebezpečné pro ně jsou příliš těsné kooperační vazby na velké podnikatelské
subjekty. Díky své flexibilitě střední podnikatelské subjekty krizová období přežívají sice se ztrátami, ale
které se nedotýkají ve větší míře společnosti. Jejich pokrizová obnova je velmi rychlá. Malé podnikatelské
subjekty, vyplňující svou činností mezery potřeb společnosti, které nepokrývá činnost velkých a středních
podnikatelských subjektů. Jejich existence je velmi nestabilní, nejistá. Malé podnikatelské subjekty reagují
na dopad krize většinou svým rychlým zánikem, mnohdy, dalo by se říci, preventivním, ještě před vznikem
ztrát. Škody pro stát jsou malé a společnost neovlivňují. Stát je registruje většinou jen ve formě navýšení
místní, regionální nezaměstnanosti. Velmi často zaniklé malé podnikatelské subjekty se již po krizi
neobnovují a rozplývají se jako zaměstnanci jiných podnikatelských subjektů.
149
Z výše uvedeného je zřejmé proč celosvětově je střední podnikatelská vrstva považována za páteř a hybnou
sílu každé ekonomiky, proč je považována za základní zdroj příjmů veřejných financí. Pro příhraniční
oblasti státu je tato podnikatelská vrstva spolu s malými podnikateli charakteristická, v příhraničních
oblastech většinou velké ekonomické subjekty nejsou. Dalo by se předpokládat, že důležitosti střední
podnikatelské vrstvy by měla odpovídat i podpora její podnikatelské činnosti ze strany státu. Evropská unie
má vytvořeny fondy na podporu malého a středního podnikání. Jaké jsou skutečně podmínky pro podnikání
středních a malých podnikatelů, jaké je vytvořeno podnikatelské prostředí pro jejich podnikání, zejména
právní prostředí, a to nejen v příhraničních oblastech v České republice?
Pokud podnikáte v České republice s umístěním svých výstupů podnikatelských aktivit jen na území České
republiky, pak je nutno v podnikatelské činnosti akceptovat a dodržovat právní předpisy České republiky
zejména upravující následující problematiky:

předpisy živnostenského podnikání

předpisy účetní

předpisy daňové

předpisy bankovní a úvěrové

předpisy pracovního práva

předpisy sociálního zabezpečení a zdravotního pojištění

předpisy obchodních vztahů

předpisy ekologické ochrany

předpisy hygienické

předpisy bezpečnosti a ochrany při práci

předpisy ochrany spotřebitele

předpisy ochrany duševního vlastnictví, ochrany autorských práv, patentů a chráněných vzorů

předpisy upravující oblast přepravy zboží

předpisy o archivaci dokladů
a nakonec nejdůležitější pro profesní základ úspěšného podnikání

Odborné předpisy příslušného oboru
Při kooperaci s firmami z jiných států Evropské unie, při nákupu zboží z Evropské unie či dodávkách zboží
do jiných členských států EU, pak je nutno akceptovat ustanovení dalších právních předpisů, a to:

předpisy EU o ochraně spotřebitele

předpisy EU hygienické

předpisy EU o původu zboží

předpisy EU o statistice Intrastat

předpisy ČR o statistice Intrastat CZ

předpisy EU a ČR o dohledu nad zbožím dvojího užití

Mezinárodní úmluvy a předpisy EU o přepravě zboží
Pokud podnikatel rozšíří svou podnikatelskou činnost o přímé podnikatelské aktivity na území jiného
členského státu EU, založí na území jiného členského státu Evropské unie svou provozovnu, pak se musí
vypořádat ještě s dalším nárůstem vlivu předpisů, a to jsou předpisy:

předpisy jiného členského státu EU upravující živnostenské podnikání na území tohoto členského
státu

předpisy jiného členského státu EU upravující účetnictví

předpisy jiného členského státu EU upravující daňovou problematiku

předpisy jiného členského státu EU upravující obchodní vztahy

předpisy jiného členského státu EU upravující ekologickou ochrany

předpisy jiného členského státu EU upravující hygienické podmínky příslušného oboru podnikání

předpisy jiného členského státu EU upravující bezpečnost a ochranu při práci

odborné předpisy jiného členského státu EU upravující příslušný obor podnikání

předpisy jiného členského státu EU o ochraně spotřebitele

předpisy jiného členského státu EU upravující pracovní vztahy v případě, že v provozovně
zaměstnává jiné osoby jako zaměstnance, včetně předpisů jiného členského státu EU upravujících
oblast sociálního zabezpečení a zdravotního pojištění.

předpisy jiného členského státu EU upravující oblast přepravy zboží
150
Když podnikatel zahrne do své podnikatelské činnosti ještě zahraničněobchodní činnost se třetími zeměmi,
tj. dovoz, vývoz se zeměmi mimo EU, pak je nutno přiřadit do komplexu předpisů ovlivňujících
podnikatelskou činnost dále:

celní předpisy Evropské unie

předpisy EU upravující podmínky, omezení, zákazy obchodu s určitým zbožím či s určitou zemí,
případně jinou obchodní ochranu trhu EU (kvóty, licence, certifikáty, vyrovnávací cla,
antidumpingová cla)

celní předpisy České republiky

mezinárodní úmluvy vztahující se k zahraničně obchodním operacím s příslušnou obchodní zemí
(původy zboží, certifikáty FORM A, EUR, preferenční zvýhodnění)

mezinárodní úmluvy dohledu nad obchodem se zbožím dvojího užití, s vojenským materiálem.

mezinárodní úmluvy upravující přepravu zboží (karnet TIR, karnet ATA, CMR)
Výše uvedený schematický rozsah předpisů, které vytváří právní podnikatelské prostředí, je obrovský a
vzbuzuje respekt. Respekt bude o to větší, když připojíme, jen jako příklad, k některým oblastem sankce,
které za nedodržování předpisů mohou být státními orgány uloženy, nejčastěji se jedná o pokuty ve výši:

až 50.000.000,-Kč za správní delikt v oblasti spotřebních daní

až 20.000.000,-Kč za správní delikt v oblasti porušení povinností se zbožím dvojího užití

až 4.000.000,-Kč za správní delikt v oblasti celnictví

až 1.000.000,-Kč za správní delikt v oblasti statistiky Intrastat CZ
Můžeme při zpětné projekci schématického přehledu předpisů nezbytných pro podnikání zlehčit celou
situaci frází, že jsme v moderní technické době a přiznejme, byť sice masivní, ale nárůst předpisů a
informací se dá zvládnout pomocí moderních informačních technologií, pomocí počítačů a vhodných
počítačových programů. Než neuváženě budeme souhlasit s touto frází, doplňme si stávající informace o
úrovni právního prostředí pro podnikatelskou činnost o podrobnější údaje o právní úpravě Evropské unie
podnikání v zahraničním obchodu, tj. při dovozu a vývozu zboží, včetně informací o právní úpravě celnictví
(stav k 17.5.2011):

Obecné předpisy v oblasti celnictví a zahraničního obchodu
305 předpisů

Předpisy upravující clo, celní hodnotu a celní řízení, původ zboží
2560 předpisů

Předpisy upravující společný celní sazebník EU a zařazování zboží
8476 předpisů

Předpisy upravující celní režimy, svobodná pásma a sklady
1345 předpisů

Předpisy upravující zahraniční obchod, celnictví a zemědělskou politiku
49 předpisů

Předpisy upravující procesní pravidla a sankce v oblasti celnictví
54 předpisů

Předpisy upravující mezinárodní součinnost v zahr.obchodu a celnictví
191 předpisů

Předpisy upravující statistiku zajišťovanou celními orgány
559 předpisů
a informace o vnitřní právní úpravě České republiky ve stejné oblasti:

Zákony upravující celní problematiku a zasahující do celní problematiky 19 předpisů

Vyhlášky upravující celní problematiku a související s celní problematikou 32 předpisů

CELKEM
13590 předpisů
Ještě pro podrobnější ilustraci situace v aktuálně existujícím právním prostředí pro podnikatelskou činnost
spojenou se zahraničním obchodem a celním projednáváním zásilek je nutno poukázat na rozsáhlost
některých předpisů a jejich nepřehlednost v důsledku množství novel, změn a doplnění, např.:

NAŘÍZENÍ KOMISE (EHS) č. 2454/93 – prováděcí předpis k celnímu kodexu Evropské unie,
v platném znění
představuje:
514 stran textu
obsahuje:
915 článků
113 příloh
změny, novely:
54 x
Nutno ještě, k úplnému dokreslení situace, doplnit, že v Evropské unii každý pracovní den (tj. obvykle od
pondělí do pátku) je vyhlašováno v průměru 12 nových předpisů a novelizací předpisů dřívějších (Úřední
věstník EU řada „L“) a cca 15 informací, doporučení a upozornění EU (Úřední věstník EU řada „C“) v celé
škále oblastí činností regulovaných a řízených orgány EU. Účinnost předpisů EU je velmi různorodá.
Obvyklá účinnost předpisů je dána 14. dnem po jeho publikaci v Úředním věstníku EU. Jsou předpisy EU
151
publikované v Úředním věstníku EU s velkým předstihem před vlastní účinností předpisu, několik měsíců,
ale může to být i několik let. Jsou však i předpisy EU, které jsou účinné od okamžiku jejich publikace
v Úředním věstníku EU a jsou i předpisy, které mají retroaktivní účinky. Je tedy zřejmé, že pro podnikání
je nezbytné, kromě znalosti právních a odborných předpisů, ještě i průběžné sledování Úředního věstníku
EU, doslova každý den, aby podnikatel zachytil i změny v předpisech. Je nutno konstatovat, že právní
prostředí pro podnikání zasahující do oblasti zahraničního obchodu, tj. i mimo členské státy Evropské unie,
je natolik rozsáhlé, složité a proměnlivé, že se v celém rozsahu na úrovni podnikatele, jehož primárním
posláním má být úspěšnost podnikání, je nezvládnutelné ani za pomoci nejvýkonnější počítačové techniky.
ZÁVĚR
Je zřejmé, že prostředí, ve kterém má podnikatel realizovat svou činnost, zejména, jak bylo
zdokumentováno v oblasti právních předpisů, není k podnikateli vůbec přívětivé. Nejhorší je, že ani
v krátkém, ani střednědobém časovém horizontu nelze očekávat nějakou výraznou pozitivní změnu, nějaké
výrazné zlepšení. Velké podnikatelské subjekty si mohou dovolit specialisty nebo využívání služeb
specializovaných poradenských firem, ale střední a malý podnikatel není mnohdy ve finanční situaci, aby
mohl zaměstnat specialistu, mnohdy nedosáhne na poradenské služby komerčně poskytované
specializovanými firmami, mnohdy je v situaci, že v prostředí příhraničních regionů se potřební specialisté a
poradenské firmy nevyskytují.
Je tedy žádoucí, aby místní samospráva, státní instituce, příspěvkové organizace, veřejně prospěšné
organizace, Obchodní komora ČR, vysoké školy, univerzity, právě v těchto příhraničních regionech
pořádaly tématická odborná školení, odborné konzultační semináře, na kterých by podnikatelé mohli získat
potřebné informace o potřebných předpisech, o zdrojích, kde předpisy hledat, o problematice
intrakomunitárního obchodu, zahraničního obchodu EU, i předpisech sousedního státu. Je žádoucí vytvářet
informační regionální centra, organizovat odborné informační tématické workshopy, vytvářet veřejně
přístupné kontaktní seznamy odborných poradců, konzultantů, právníků, poradenských firem v konkrétních
odborných zájmových oblastech, pro regionální použití, tj. jako možný informační zdroj pro místní
podnikatele příhraniční oblastí. Prioritní by však mělo být, prostřednictvím poslanců České republiky
v Evropském parlamentu, působit na Evropskou unii s cílem vytvářet jednodušší právní systém EU,
prosazovat komplexnější, ucelenější právní legislativu EU, aby se omezilo inflační množství platných a
vydávaných předpisů EU, aby byla omezována právní úprava dílčích problematik přímo „evropskounijní
legislativou“, aby byla preferována ucelená právní úprava celých problémových oblastí s cílem dosáhnout
snížení počtu platných předpisů EU a zpřehlednění komplexu předpisů EU.
Už dnes bychom ale mohli začít říkat, že po historické době kamenné, bronzové, železné ………… na
začátku 21. století v Evropě byla doba „právních předpisů, nařízení, zákazů a omezení“ – doba
byrokratická. Je to doba, která nevytváří optimální prostředí pro podnikatelské aktivity středních a malých
podnikatelů obecně, tedy včetně příhraničních oblastí České republiky.
SEZNAM ZDROJŮ INFORMACÍ – INTERNETOVÉ ZDROJE:
[1]
EUR-Lex, dostupné na: http://eur-lex.europa.eu
AUTHOR
JUDr. Pavel Matoušek
Právnická fakulta Univerzity Palackého v Olomouci
Tř. 17.listopadu 8
Pošt. schránka 16
771 11 Olomouc
[email protected]
152
SPA TREATMENT AN IMPORTANT ELEMENT OF TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN
MORAVIAN SILESIAN REGION
Monika Motyková
Abstract: This article contains a brief history and characteristics of the position of spas in the
Moravian-Silesian Region (the MSR) on the basis of statistical data. At the same time, it points
out to the possibility of the use of spa and wellness as a core structure for the creation of a
non-industrial cluster of enterprises in the tourism sector. The creation of the non-industrial
cluster should be carried out by the public and private sectors, in cooperation with academia.
Some of the already functioning supra-regional and regional cooperative structures are
presented here, as examples of good practice in the Czech Republic. The article aims to
characterize the spa industry in the Moravian Silesian Region in terms of theirs co-operative
potential in tourism. The analysis of available literature sources and comparison the status of
spa in Czech Republic and Moravian Silesian Region was conducted. Conclusion consists of
synthesis of previous parts of the article. Deduction was used when drawing logical
conclusions and findings.
Klíčová slova: spa treatment, tourism, wellness, cluster, Moravian Silesian Region, cooperation, natural resources
INTRODUCTION
Development of therapeutic spa services is closely linked with the presence of natural mineral waters and
peloids. The application of natural healing resources, baths and drinking waters has long been recognized as
one of the oldest therapies in medicine and it has been used until now. There were healing places arising
gradually near these sources. Baths and spas are not spread around the world evenly and the spa has
remained a predominantly European affair. The spa tourism in Europe has been experiencing a boom in
recent years and we can assume its further dynamic development, due to increasing living standards and
growing health consciousness of the population. Likewise, there are agreements being prepared, which
anticipate mutual cooperation within Europe in the areas of health (i.e. the potential expansion of healthcare
insurance paid abroad). State-of-the-art water parks, centers of cosmetic and wellness services are becoming
increasingly common in the spa centers.
The Czech Republic has a unique mineral springs, which are used for healing purposes. Even though the
tradition of Czech spas is younger than, for example, in southern Europe, it still managed to be recognized
in Europe in the past and so it did in the history of medicine and balneology. According to KNOP [5], there
was a major development of the spa treatment and spa resorts in the Czech Republic in the 18th and 19th
century; the first large spa facilities - colonnades, buildings near springs and spas were built. Attention
began to be paid to the quality of natural resources, by means of chemical analysis and springs exploration;
spa complexes were built and modernized, new spa treatments employed.
After World War II the tendency to incorporate spa services into the health care system dominated.
Attention was focused on the recovery of war-destroyed spas and finally, spas were nationalized. In the 70s
and 80s demand for spa services greatly exceeded the supply and there was a lack of investment in the
rehabilitation of these facilities. The number of beds in spas was increased which led to a critical situation
when neither the material base of the spa, nor the quality of services could reach the required level.
Since 1989, when the Czech Republic experienced the transformation of society towards the developed
Europe, Czech spas have been able to defend their importance and position on the global market. There has
been a significant strengthening of the commercial importance of spa centres; the outdated buildings and
equipment have been extensively renovated and modernized and the promotion of spas has taken place, the
result of which has been an increasing interest of foreign clients. Contemporary spa in the Czech Republic is
no longer only a healing or physiotherapeutic activity, but it is becoming a cultural and social center.
Domestic and foreign guests are coming to spas for relaxation, regeneration and recreation. This field is
currently undergoing major changes. It ceases to perform solely the function of health restoration to those
who have lost it, but it is being increasingly applied as a prevention, allowing resistance to various diseases.
153
1. WELLNESS AND SPA
Spa Management is a part of tourism; it can be regarded as an important economic activity, which has
benefits for public health. Along with the emerging activities of wellness and medical tourism, it belongs to
a dynamically developing tourism sector. Spa Act (164/2001 Sb [6] defines a natural spas as a set of
medical and other related facilities used to provide spa services. Source of natural healing is a mineral
water present, gas or peloids which have a property suitable for therapeutic use.
According to the ISPA (International Spa Association) [4], current spa treatment builds on the traditional
healing spa, based on mineral and thermal springs. However, nowadays spa treatment is being enriched in
modern health resorts, offering everything for relaxation, drawing energy and elimination of pain. Present
spas focus on healthy lifestyle, which includes healthy eating and fitness activities, physical healing, as well
as stress management, medical education, etc. New trends and tendencies are increasingly penetrating spa
treatment, the most spread of which is called wellness, which according to PODĚBRADSKÝ [9], can be
defined as human activity leading to a sense of satisfaction and comfort which is created by a set of pleasant
impulses. These include movement, agreeable music, regeneration, soothing, relaxing, and reasonably also
food and drink. Currently, the wellness in the Czech Republic is undergoing a great development. For a
proper understanding of wellness, it is important to define its similarities and differences with classic spa
treatment.
The common characteristic of spa and wellness is the fact that these terms are not legally defined in the
Czech Republic. A number of new spas are being set up in the Czech Republic, yet they are not seen as spas
in terms of legislation and in terms of services, because they do not have the natural healing sources
certified by the Ministry of Health. Also, the concept of “wellness” is often used improperly. Some small
guesthouses with a whirlpool and a sauna are competing for the same clients as the top spa facilities with a
global concept of wellness. Spa services, as well as wellness, are beginning to be applied as prevention,
allowing resistance to various diseases. Differences are shown in the table 1.
Table 1 Differences between spa and wellness
Differences
Spa
healing: treatment and after-treatment of health
Function/Objective
complications
stricter adherence to diet programs, fixed
Program
schedule of spa treatments
fixed schedule of treatments, fixed spa
Operations
regulations
complex/subsidized spa treatment, private
Finance
patients
Healing source
is necessary
Clientele
mostly sick people – therapeutic procedure
legal standard – Spa Act, regional offices
inspection, regional offices grant the
Legislative
registration, Ministery of Health inspection –
Czech Inspectorate of Spas and Springs, Czech
insurance companies
Stay
14, 21, 28 days
Source: Own research
Wellness
prevention,
relaxation,
recondition
liberal regulations, customized
to requirements of clients
free, more individual programs
private patients
is not necessary
healthy people - prevention
lack of certification, has no legal
or legislative protection
weekend, week
Spa services can be drawn according to PODĚBRADSKÝ [9] in:

Wellness center - usually includes a fitness center, a beauty salon and a wellness center, offering
massages, baths or hot tubs and a pool

Stay in a hotel (hotel's wellness) - wellness services constitute either an additional service to housing
or the overall strategy of the hotel is based on the wellness philosophy. Wellness hotels are equipped
with a relaxation area, a swimming pool, a beauty salon or a fitness center. These services may be
used only by hotel clients.

Stay in a spa (wellness spa) - spa facilities are offering wellness treatment, in addition to traditional
spa treatment. Currently, the trend is strongly increasing. The spas which were once visited almost
exclusively on recommendation and at the expense of insurance companies, now have become
businesses that are opened to a wide clientele. It follows that the spa and wellness services overlap,
complement each other; an area for cooperation springs up.
154
2. CURRENT STATE OF SPA TREATMENT IN MSR IN THE BACKGROUND OF THE CZECH
REPUBLIC
2.1 THE CURRENT STATE OF SPA TREATMENT IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC

The number of guests and overnight stays in terms of domestic/foreign self-payers, and patients at
the expense of public health insurance
The figures published by the ČSÚ [2] show that the total number of self-payers admitted for treatment at
spas in the Czech Republic in 2009 declined slightly compared to 2008. Compared with 2005, there was an
increase in the number of these patients by nearly a half.
According to ÚZIS [10], the total number of patients admitted for treatment at spas at the expense of public
health insurance in 2009 was 89.3 % compared with 2005.
This corresponds to the number of days of treatment: with patients treated at the expense of public health
insurance there is a decrease in the number of days of treatment since 2005. With domestic and foreign self
paying patients there is an increase in the number of days of treatment.

The number of guests and overnight stays in terms of residents/non residents
The table below shows that since 2005 there has been a trend of growth of domestic and foreign clients of
spas in the Czech Republic. Regarding the total number of overnight stays, for non-residents it is also an
increasing trend. Residents have shortened stays in spas since 2005. According to CZECHTOURISM [3],
yet in the first quarter of 2010, the Czech spa industry has experienced 4% growth in clients. In the second
quarter of 2010 the positive trend of increasing number of clients continued. Compared to the first quarter
of 2010, there was a rise in the number of overnight stays. An average length of stay in the second quarter
was 11.4 days.
2.2 CURRENT STATUS OF SPAS IN MSK
MSR used to belong and still belongs to the most important industrial regions of Central Europe. There can
be seen picturesque and varied nature of northern Moravia and Silesia in this region, and it provides
countless opportunities for recreation, tourism and therapeutic programs. The Beskydy and Jeseníky
Mountains offer opportunities for summer and winter tourism, the valleys of the rivers offer good conditions
for hiking, cycling and agro tourism. At this point, the quality of life is rising; there is an improvement in
environmental issues and transport network; both the tourism in the region and the attractiveness of the
region as a tourist location are increasing, and the region is a home to major spa facilities. Spas in MSK
represent an important non industrial entrepreneurial activity using natural healing sources, which attracts
other services that constitute business opportunities for small and medium-size enterprises.
As shown in the table below, since 2005 there has been an overall growth of domestic and foreign clients in
spas in MSR, as it has been in the Czech Republic. Non-residents are staying longer at spas in MSR, just
like in spas in the Czech Republic. Similarly, since 2005 residents have made their stays shorter, both in
spas in MSR and the Czech Republic.
Table 2 Attendance at the spa accommodation in MSR
Number
Non-Residents
Residents
Year
of guests
2005 23 917
872
23 045
2006 21 456
1 093
20 363
2007 24 341
1 241
23 100
2008 25 968
1 339
24 629
2009 25 303
1 082
24 221
Source: ČSÚ[2]
Number
of nights
547 281
426 900
458 485
446 747
453 806
Non-Residents
Residents
21 534
26 852
22 283
28 718
36 221
525 747
400 048
436 202
418 029
417 585
According to CZECHTOURISM [3], in the first half the year 2010 there was recorded a significant increase
in the number of foreign guests in Moravian-Silesian region (increase by 42.6%). The increase was also
recorded in the Southern Bohemia region (increase by 27.7%) and Karlovy Vary region (increase by 5%).
On the contrary, a large decrease was observed in Olomouc region (decrease by 44%), Zlin region (decrease
by 12.3%) and Ústí nad Labe region (decrease by 10.5%). The number of overnight stays increased in
nearly all regions (except the Zlín and Olomouc region).
155
Picture 1 The bed capacity of spa facilities in 2009 in the Czech Republic
Source: ČSÚ [2]
Focusing on the MSR, we can see that it is located on the 4th place in terms of bed capacity of spa facilities,
behind the Karlovy Vary Region, Olomouc and Zlín Region (see the graph).
Picture 2 Guests in spa accommodation according to the regions in 2009 (in %)
Ústí nad Labem
Region; 3,2
Olomouc
Region; 8
Karlovy Vary
Region; 57,6
Zlín Region; 10,1
Mor avia-Silesian
Region; 3,9
Southern
Bohemia; 5
Centr al
Bohemia; 3,9 Others; 8,3
Source: ČSÚ [2]
This corresponds to the graph, which shows that the MSR, together with the Central Bohemia region, is
located on the 4th place as to the number of guests in the spa facilities, behind Karlovy Vary, Zlín and
Olomouc Region.
The above statistics show that MSR has the fourth largest capacity of spa beds in the country and there is a
long-term increase in the number of spa guests, while some regions with larger capacity of spa beds are
facing a decline in the number of spa guests. It is necessary to promote further the positive development in
MSR.
3. SPA AND WELLNESS FACILITIES IN MSR
Tourism is a major economic, social and cultural element in the region, which significantly affects the
formation of GDP and revenue to local budgets, increasing employment and contributes to the overall
development of the region. Geographical position of the region is beneficial, as it borders Poland and
Slovakia, and there is a wealth of cultural, historical and technical heritage, folk traditions and natural
beauty. Spa treatment is a significant potential for tourism development, as it substantially contributes to the
increase in attractiveness and visit rate of the region.
Spa facilities Karlova Studánka, Klimkovice and Darkov offer a diverse range of therapeutic and relaxing
stays. They offer treatment of musculoskeletal diseases, conditions after musculoskeletal injuries and
operations, neurological, gynecological, vascular diseases, high blood pressure, circulatory system, post
burn conditions and respiratory illnesses. Visitors also come here for active relaxation, which is linked to
the overall regeneration and relaxation. Further, spas represent an opportunity for the development of small
156
spas in rural areas that could become a crystalline core of further development of the area – i.e. the healing
springs in Jablunkov. The healing power of natural spring water, clean mountain air, tranquility and a
picturesque scenery of spa resorts attract many visitors every year. Due to concentration of local products,
relaxation, wellness and spa constitute a significant competitive advantage of the MSR.
3.1 SPA FACILITIES IN MSR

Darkov Karviná Spa - the emphasis is put on traditional methods of rehabilitation, balneology
procedures use natural healing iodine-bromine water source. Accommodation is offered by a health
resort Darkov, with 273 beds and Physiotherapeutic Sanatorium with 583 beds.

Sanatorium Klimkovice - spa guests appreciate especially unique iodine-bromine water, called
”solanka“, which has a versatile healing effects on the human body. The capacity is 483 beds in two
hospitals.

Karlova Studánka Spa - one of the sites with the cleanest air. There is a natural source of mineral
water. Accommodation is offered by seven bath houses with a total capacity of 473 beds.

In addition to traditional spa treatment based on healing mineral waters and other resources, there is
Beskydy Physiotherapeutic Centre in Čeladná, which presents itself as a spa resort, even without the
use of mineral waters.

Jánské baths - closed (in the municipality of Staré Těchanovice) - in the 19th century there was
created a significant carbon-iron bath with a capacity of 200 beds. The carbon-ferrous mineral water
was exported. After World War II the treatment at the spa was stopped and never restored, the bath
served as a sanatorium for recreation. In 1993 the premises were closed and the precious mineral
water has since flown into Moravice river without any benefit. At present, this spa is on the list of the
most endangered sites of the Czech Republic and in the SWOT analysis of the marketing concept of
the MSR this dilapidated spa is recognized as a threat.

In addition to these important health resorts in the region there are smaller facilities that are not
included in the category of spa treatment with spa supervision, even though their titles contain the
word “spa“ - the Spas in Komorní Lhotka, Beer spa in Písek u Jablunkova, Mansion beer baths in
Ostrava –Zabřeh.

Moravian-Silesian Region has a potential for further development of spas: e.g. the use of healing
water in Písek u Jablunkova, which is a priority in the Marketing Strategy of Tourism Development
in the MSR for the years 2009 - 2013 and it gives an opportunity to broaden and strengthen spa
treatment in the region. A village Písek u Jablunkova has already prepared a study for the
construction of the spa.
3.2 HEALING SPRINGS IN MSR

Painful joints or other body parts, diseases can be treated in the spring in the village of Bělá near
Opava. The spring is available in the relaxation zone and is used in two of Priessnitze pools.

In the Hostašovice village „Zrzávka“ and „Smradlavka“ springs with sulfate ferric can be found.

In the Suchá Rudná village there is an iron mineral water spring. It is similar to mineral water in
Karlova Studánka.
3.3 WELLNESS HOTELS, WELLNESS CENTRES AND SPA WELLNESS IN THE MSR
Predominantly, baths using mineral water have a significant advantage over the competition in traditional
wellness services. Nowadays each hotel aims to offer wellness services as an added value to its services.
Yet often it just offers an ordinary swimming pool with a whirlpool and at the same time uses a wellness
sign, and thus mystifies the customer. A similar categorization as with hotels in the form of stars (valid from
1.1.2010) does not exist in wellness. Among the spa operators there emerged a need for a qualified
assessment of wellness facilities, which would enable customers to orientate in spa services. However, the
categorization is very complicated. Czech Wellness Association (CAW) [1], (founded in 2007) is working
on some form of categorization. The project is currently being prepared for the certification of wellness
within the MSR. In Germany, only 27 wellness facilities fulfilled the strict criteria for the wellness
designation. CAW wants to go in the opposite direction, to give more advice, to assist and open the space
for much wider range of businesses. In the MSR there are tens of hotels and centers designated as wellness
with 3-5 *. Wellness services are provided in the region by all spa facilities. However, without any official
categorization it is impossible to assess whether these are true wellness.
157
According to VANĚK [11], for creation of customer-requested product the involvement of a wide range of
businesses is necessary. Most spa facilities already have some experience in linking health care with
accommodation and hotel services, catering operations and organization of leisure time of their clients. In
the spa and wellness sector that ensures the comprehensiveness of services, there are also smaller firms
operating together with large companies; for these smaller companies is not easy to succeed on the market.
This is why they are looking for different ways of obtaining and maintaining competitive advantage. These
small companies must also deal with trends that are already widespread all over the world. Their
disappearing may threaten the comprehensiveness of services in health tourism in a specific spa location,
thereby reducing its attractiveness to customers. It is therefore in the interest of all businesses to establish
effective cooperation in selected activities, without losing its legal identity.
From the above we can state that in MSR there is a significant potential for spa and wellness tourism. These
facilities can not only compete, but there comes the possibility of strengthening cooperation. According to
LEDNICKÝ and VANĚK [8]), the cooperation of businesses, in particular SMEs, can have a form of
cluster. This concept is taken over from Anglo-American managerial vocabulary and means a community,
grouping, confluence and bunch. In the context of EU structural programs only industrial clusters are
supported. Nevertheless, non-industrial clusters also deserve support, since many of them are already
operating in the world.
4. CLUSTER – COOPRATION OF SPAS IN MSR
Cooperation of institutions from the public, private and education sector, based on cluster has recently
become very popular. The evidence of this is emerging clusters which operate in various economic sectors
including tourism.
In the Czech Republic there are number of clusters that have already existed for many years. However, they
are mainly industrial clusters. Currently, only one relatively young non-industrial cluster of tourism operates
in the MSK - it is a cooperative structure at the regional level. As LEDNICKÝ, VANĚK [7] claim, it is
recommended to use a cooperative form of non-industrial cluster in the area of technical monuments.
At present, a study on establishing a cluster of tourism, called America in Central Bohemia Region is being
prepared, together with a study on establishing clusters of tourism called Rakovnicko in the Central
Bohemia Region, and a study on establishing cluster of spa and tourism in the region of Karlovy Vary.
Based on my research, it was found that in the immediate vicinity, i.e. in Slovakia, Poland, Austria and
Hungary clusters focused on tourism operate successfully:

In Slovakia there were set up many tourism clusters: Liptov, Orava, Turiec, Smolenice, Tatry.

In Poland there are Zachodniopomorski Klaster Turystyczny and Odrzański Klaster Turystyczny.

In Hungary we can find Thermal Cluster Balaton.

In Austria there are the Health Cluster, Cluster Wellbeing and Wellbeing Destination.

In the world there are known: the cluster of Bajkal and the Tourism Cluster of Sri Lanka. Tourism
cluster in Ghana was founded, in order to banish barriers in this sector. Jamaica Wellness Cluster
mainly promotes traditional Jamaican products, clothing, wellness and craft. Further, worth
mentioning are: Tirol wellness cluster in Italy, Region Are in southern Sweden, Tourism Cluster in
South Carolina or a cluster of tourism along the Murray River in Australia.
Other examples of good practice are functioning cooperative structures in the spa in the Czech Republic:

Sdružení lázeňských míst ČR, which is a non-govermental organization of spa towns in the Czech
Republic

Svaz léčebných lázní ČR, which associates healing spas, the competence of which is certified by
accreditation from health insurance companies and the Ministry of Health in the Czech Republic

MEDISPA - interest grouping of legal entities which protects the quality and reputation of health
care in the Karlovy Vary region.
Above mentioned cooperative structures show that cooperation in this field works as well as in a nonindustrial sector. Cluster of the spa should bring together the following subjects from all three domains:
commercial, public and educational. According to an analysis of the membership of other clusters of
tourism and knowledge of the spa, the spa cluster should pool the following subjects in picture number 3.
158
Picture 3 Membership of Spa cluster
Research in the
field of medicine
and balneology
Regional agencies
High school:
health, tourism,
educational
facilities
Additional services
Spa facilities
Wellness center
Hotel wellness
Wellness spa
Travel agencies
Transport
company
Source:Own research
A cluster can draw on experience from industry clusters and tourism clusters. The aim of the spa cluster will
be the improvement and promotion of services, improving the supply of spa and wellness in the MSR and
consequently, attract more clients.
CONSLUSION
The Czech spa underwent a flowering and declining and is currently famous in the world thanks to the
quality of care. Currently it has to cope with and adapt to global trends. People are living longer and travel
for health. Spas, which people used to visit only on recommendation and at the expense of health insurance
companies, have become businesses, which are also visited by a foreign clientele, which in addition to
classic spa treatment uses wellness in order to draw new strength. Nowadays, the trend is to develop
wellness, which has a lot of similarities and differences with spa. These entities are competitors, but they
may complement each other and work together, and thereby attract new customers to the MSR.
This article analyzes the MSR, which is one of the most important industrial regions of Central Europe.
However, it offers the fourth largest spa bed capacity with potential for further development, and therefore it
is necessary to pay attention to that field. This field is suitable for cooperation and supplementation of
activities of enterprises in the medical and wellness tourism. This cooperation may take different forms and
intensity, and there is possibility to use the cooperative form of cluster, which enables a comprehensive
range of services in the field of spas and wellness and helps to raise the profile of the region as a spa region.
A number of claims in this article will need to be verified by additional research. Spa cluster will be a
benefit for involved subjects and the destination in which it operates on the condition that there will be
better cooperation based on innovativeness, communication and information.
LITERATURE:
[1]
ČESKÁ ASOCIACE WELLNESS: http://www.spa-wellness.cz
[2]
ČESKÝ STATISTICKÝ ÚŘAD: http://www.czso.cz.
[3]
CZECHTOURISM: http://www.czechtourism.cz.
[4]
ISPA
(International
Spa
Asociation,
Mezinárodní
organizace
lázní):
http://www.experienceispa.com/.
[5]
KNOP, K. a kol. Lázeňství – ekonomika a management. Praha: Grada Publishing, 1999, s. 232.
ISBN 80-7169-717-6.
[6]
LÁZEŇSKÝ ZÁKON (164/2001 Sb.): http://www.zdrav.cz.
[7]
LEDNICKÝ, V., VANĚK, J. Acta academica karviniensia 2/2008. SU OPF Karviná, 2008, 141 s.
ISSN 1212-415X.
[8]
LEDNICKÝ, V., VANĚK, J. Kooperační struktury malých a středních podniků. 1. vyd. Karviná: SU
OPF2004, 191 s. ISBN 80-7248-254-9.
[9]
PODĚBRADSKÝ, J. Wellness v ČR. Praha: Ministerstvo pro místní rovzoj ČR, 2008, 129
s. dostupná na http://www.mmr.cz/.
[10] ÚSTAV ZDRAVOTNICKÝCH INFORMACÍ A STATISTIKY ČR: http://www.uzis.cz.
[11] VANĚK, J. Zdravotní turistika – příležitost pro tvorbu neprůmyslových klastrů. Sborník říspěvků
z mezinárodního kolokvia a odborných seminářů „TECHNÉ OSTRAVA 2008“, S 94-97. Ostrava:
DK Poklad, 2008. ISSN 1214-8808.
AUTHOR
Ing. Monika Motyková
159
Jablunkov č. 313
739 91 Jablunkov
+420 731 777 832
[email protected]
160
THE TESTING OF STATISTICAL HYPOTHESES AN IMPORTANT MEANS OF
STATISTICAL INDUCTION
Miroslav Novotný, Iva Jevčaková
Evropský polytechnický institut, s.r.o., Kunovice
Abstract: The article deals with using methods of the testing of statistical hypotheses in
didactically simplified economic problems. Three types of problems, in which it is possible to
use the testing of statistical hypotheses, are briefly described and the solution of an example is
presented for each of the described problems. The standard normal, Student’s, and
 2 probability distributions are used in the examples.
Key words: statistical hypothesis, probability distribution, mean value, variance, significance
level, null hypothesis, alternative hypothesis, critical area, quantile, test statistic, normal
distribution, Student’s distribution,
 2 distribution.
INTRODUCTION
It is good to do economic decision based on knowing statistical data and on knowing what they indicate.
One of the method that can help to apply the mentioned idea is the testing of statistical hypotheses. To use
the method, as the first step we have to formulate what is to decide. That means to formulate a hypothesis
which will be tested – the null hypothesis. On the other side, we have to formulate an alternative hypothesis.
If, after the result of the test, the null hypothesis is rejected, the alternative hypothesis will be accepted. The
test will usually use the data gathered from a sample of the whole population. Some parameters are
calculated from the gained data a function – the test statistic - is created from them, and the appropriate
statistic distribution has to be chosen for the test statistic. The shape of the test statistic depends on the
formulation of the problem. We also have to set the statistical significance level of the test. It is denoted α
and the value of 0.05 or 0.01 is usually taken for it. It is the probability with which we reject the null
hypothesis although it is true. Then we create the critical region. It is the set of values of the test statistic
for which the null hypothesis is rejected. After we have calculated the value of the test statistic, we can do
the final decision. How to do all these steps is demonstrated in three examples.
TESTING STATISTICAL HYPOTHESES ABOUT THE MEAN VALUE
Let us assume the values X 1 , X 2 ... X n of a statistical attribute that are gathered in a random manner
from a normal statistical population. It means the population is described by a normal distribution function
N(  0
,  0 ). Values X 1 , X 2 ... X n represent a sample of the whole population. Using these data, we
2
will try to prove a hypothesis about a parameter of the statistical distribution that is supposed to be valid for
a whole population.
The range of the sample is n .
It is often needed to know if the mean value calculated from the sample is not in a contradiction with the
value  0 . It means we want to know if the difference between  and  0 is statistically significant. To
find it let us formulate the null hypothesis H 0 :
where
X 
  0
,
1
( X 1 , X 2 ... X n ) .
n
Now we can formulate three alternative hypotheses:
a) H A :    0
b) H A :
  0
161
  0
c) H A :
Only one of them can be chosen in a particular task.
As the next step, we have to decide which type of the test statistic to use and what type of the probability
distribution is appropriate for the chosen test statistic.
If
 0 and  0
2
are known, the test statistic u 
X  0
0
n is used and the appropriate distribution is
the standard normal distribution N( 0 ,1 ).
If
 0 is
known and
 02
unknown, the test statistic
t
X  0
S
n is used and the appropriate
distribution is the Student’s distribution t(n-1).
We assume the null hypothesis is valid and on the assumption we also assume the test statistic is governed
by the appropriate distribution.
Then we set the value for α. The suitable value is 0.05. If we want to do the test more strictly, we can take a
smaller value, for example 0.01.
If α is set and appropriate distribution function for the test statistic is chosen, the critical region for possible
values of the test statistic has to be construct. Let us denote it C. If calculated value of the test statistic lies
in C, we will reject the null hypothesis.
If the appropriate distribution for the test statistic is the standard normal distribution, the critical intervals
are constructed as follows:
  0
then
b) If H A :
then
c) If
  0
H A :   0
then
a) If H A :

C    ;u 
1
2

C  u1 ;  
 

  u  ;
  1

  2 
C   ;u1 
If the appropriate distribution for the test statistic is Student’s distribution, the critical intervals are
constructed as follows:
a) If H A :
  0
  0
H A :   0
then
b) If H A :
then
c) If
then

 

C    ;t  (n  1)    t  (n  1);  
1
2

  1 2

C  t1 ;  
C   ;t1 
To find the border values we use the tables of quantiles for the appropriate distribution.
Task 1
It vas found by a long term statistical survey that the machine makes tables of chocolate with average
weight 200g and with variance  0 = 1200g2. Let us assume the weight of a table of chocolate as a
2
random quantity has in the whole production of this kind of chocolate a normal distribution. But, a sample
of 40 tables of chocolate in one series gave the average weight of 190g. Decide, if the series should be
discarded because of the low average weight.
Solution:
The range of the sample n = 40.
We can agree the weight of a table of chocolate in the whole production has the normal distribution with
 0  200 g
and
 0 2  1200g 2 .
The mean value of the weight of a table of chocolate calculated for the sample
Null hypothesis:
  190 g  X
H 0 :   0
162
.
  0
Alternative hypothesis: H A :
Test statistic: u 
X  0
0
n
On the assumption H 0 is valid, the normal distribution N(0,1) is appropriate for the test statistic.
Let us choose the statistical significance level:   0.05  5% .
From the table of α-quantile values for the standard normal distribution we set the critical area for the null
hypothesis. It means to set the critical area for the values of the test statistic:
C   ;u1    ;u 0,95   ;1.64  .


The calculated value for the test statistic: u 
X  0
190  200
40  1.826
1200
As the value of the test statistic lies in the critical area,  1.826   ;1.64 , we reject the null
0
n
hypothesis on the level of the statistical significance of 5% and accept the alternative hypothesis. That
means the series should be discarded.
Task 2
The producer declares that a cigarette of a certain kind contains 8.8 mg of tar. A testing laboratory has
measured the amount of tar in 6 cigarettes and gained values are as follows: 8,8; 9.0; 8.9; 8.5; 8.8; 8.9 (in
mg). You should decide if it is possible to prove the value declared by the producer.
Solution:
The range of the sample n = 6
Let us assume that the amount of the tar contained in a cigarette, as a random quantity in the whole
production, has the normal distribution with
 0  8.8 mg ,
while
 02
is unknown.
The mean value of the tar contained in a cigarette calculated for the sample
  8.817 mg  X
with
 0.03 mg and S  0.17 mg .
Null hypothesis:
H 0 :   0
Alternative hypothesis: H A :    0
variance S
2
2
X  0
n
S
On the assumption H 0 is valid, the Student’s distribution t(n-1) is appropriate for the test statistic.
Let us choose the statistical significance level:   0.05  5%
Test statistic: t 
From the table of α-quantile values of the Student’s distribution for n - 1 = 5 we set the critical area for the
null hypothesis. It means to set the critical area for the values of the test statistic:

 

C    ;t  (n  1)    t  (n  1);     ;t 0,975 (5)   t 0,975 (5);  
1
2

  1 2

C   ;2,57)   2,57;   .
The calculated value for the test statistic t 
X  0
S
n
8.817  8.8
 6  0.245
0.17
Because the value of the test statistic does not lie in the critical area, we do not reject the null hypothesis on
the statistical significance level of 5%. That means the declared value of contained tar in a cigarette could
be proved.
163
TESTING STATISTICAL HYPOTHESES ABOUT THE VARIANCE
Let us assume the values X 1 , X 2 ... X n of a statistical attribute are gathered in a random manner from a
normal statistical population described by a normal distribution function N(  0
,  0 ), in which  0 ,  0
2
2
are known. Values X 1 , X 2 ... X n represent a sample of the whole population.
The range of the sample is
n.
2
We often need to know if the value of the variance S calculated from the sample is not in the contradiction
with the value of
 02 .
It means we want to know if the difference between S
2
and
 0 2 is statistically
S 2   02 .
significant. To find it let us formulate the null hypothesis: H 0 :
Now we can formulate three alternative hypotheses:
a) H A :
S 2   02
b) H A :
S 2   02
c) H A :
S 2   02
Only one of them can be chosen in a particular task.
As the next step, we are to decide which type of the test statistic to use and what type of the probability
distribution is appropriate for the chosen distribution.
In this case, the test statistic
2 
(n  1)  S 2

2
0
is used and the appropriate distribution is the
 2 (n  1)
distribution.
We assume the null hypothesis is valid and on the assumption we also assume the test statistic is governed
by the  ( n  1) distribution.
Then we set the value for α. Again, the suitable value is 0.05 and an another possible value is 0.01.
2
From the value of α and using the  ( n  1) distribution, we construct critical region C for possible
values of the test statistic. If calculated value of the test statistic lies in C, we will reject the null hypothesis.
The critical region is constructed as follows:
2
a) If H A :
S 2   02
b) If H A :
S 2   02

2

2

2
then C   1 ( n  1) ;  
c) If H A :
S 2   02
then






then C     ;    ( n  1)    

C    ;   12 ( n  1)

(n  1) ;  
1
2

2


To find the border values we use the tables of quantiles for the
2
distribution.
Task 3
A coffee machine is to fill each cup 200 ml of coffee. To find if it is in order, we take a cup of coffee six
times a week and carry out controlling measuring. If we obtain the variance greater then 25 ml2, we should
adjust the coffee machine. One week we obtained data as follows: 200, 210, 195, 205, 195, 215 (in ml2).
The manufacturer declares the amount of coffee with which the machine fills the cups has normal
distribution. From given values, you should decide, if the machine needs to adjust.
Solution
The range of the sample n = 6
We can assume the amount of coffee with which the machine fills the cups has normal distribution with
 0  200 ml
and
 0 2  25 ml 2 .
164
The mean value calculated from given values for the sample X  203 ml and variance S
Null hypothesis: H 0 :
2 
 58 ml 2
S 2   02
Alternative hypothesis: H A :
Test statistic:
2
S 2   02
(n  1)  S 2
 02
 2 (n  1) distribution is appropriate for the test statistic.
Let us choose the statistical significance level:   0.05  5%
2
From the table of α-quantile values of the  ( n  1) distribution and for n = 6 we set the critical area for
On the assumption H 0 is valid, the
the null hypothesis. It means to set the critical area for the values of the test statistic:

 

C  12 (n  1);    02,95 (5);   11.1 ;   .
The calculated value for the test statistic
2 
(n  1)  S 2

2
0

5  58
 11.6 .
25
As the value of the test statistic lies in the critical area, we should reject the null hypothesis on the level of
the statistical significance of 5%. That means the machine should be adjusted.
CONCLUSION
The testing of statistical hypotheses belongs to important means of statistical induction. It is used in
scientific research as well as in economical practice. Research workers have developed procedures for
using the testing of statistical hypotheses for various types of practical problems. In schools providing
higher economical education, it makes sense to include some of the procedures using the testing of
statistical hypotheses into the lectures of statistics. This article aims to contribute to it.
LITERATURE:
[1] BLATNÁ, D. Pravděpodobnost a statistika. Praha: Bankovní institut vysoká škola, 2010. ISBN 97880-7265-057-6.
[2] BUDÍKOVÁ, M. a kol. Popisná statistika. Brno: Masarykova univerzita, 2007. ISBN 978-80-2104246-9.
[3] BUDÍKOVÁ, M. a kol. Základní statistické metody. Brno: Masarykova univerzita, 2005. ISBN 80210-3886-1.
[4] NOVOTNÝ, M.; JEVČAKOVÁ, I. Úvod do statistiky. Kunovice: EPI, s.r.o., 2011. ISBN 978-807314-250-6.
[5] REKTORYS, K. a kol. Přehled užité matematiky I.,II. Praha: Prometheus, 2000. ISBN 80-7196-179-5.
ADDRESSES:
Mgr. Miroslav Novotný
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
Česká republika
Mgr. Iva Jevčaková
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
Česká republika
165
166
TRADE BALANCE OF THE CZECH REPUBLIC AND ITS IMPACT ON THE
COUNTRY’S ECONOMY
Ladislav Obdržálek, Vladimíra Hlaváčková, Radek Habarta
European Polytechnic Institute, Ltd. Kunovice
Abstract: Foreign trade plays in many countries including the Czech Republic a very
important role, in some countries often the essential one. Countries with open economies in
fact depend on exports or imports of goods and services. The value of exports and imports of
goods and services is demonstrated by the trade balance, which is a part of the balance of
payments. This paper deals with the balance of trade of the Czech Republic, its territorial and
commodity structure, compares its results in recent years and describes its impact on the
economy of the state.
Key words: Trade balance, exports, imports, state, estate, service Fonetický přepis
INTRODUCTION
The trade balance of the state is the difference between its exports and imports. It arises in the context of
trade with other countries. The balance of trade can be balanced when the value of exports equal the value
of imports, or unbalanced. The active (positive) balance of trade is known as a trade surplus and it occurs
when exports of goods and services exceed their imports. The passive (negative) trade balance is known as
the trade deficit and it is due to higher imports than exports. It is quite common that the Czech Republic has
a different balance of trade with various countries. The trade balance is, as we mentioned earlier, part of the
balance of payments, which is a statistical record, which summarizes all economic transactions between
home country and other countries for a certain period of time, usually one year. The balance of payments is
therefore the comparison of all cash and real commodities flows between the domestic economy and the
"rest of the world." It includes, in addition to payments for imported and exported goods and services,
various incomes flowing across borders, foreign direct investment, purchases of securities abroad, etc.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FOREIGN TRADE OF THE CZECH REPUBLIC
If we consider the development of balance of payments since 1993, we must conclude that until 2004 there
was trade deficit, which means that the Czech Republic imported more goods and services than it exported.
Since 2005 the trade balance has been active. The trade deficit at the beginning of transformation in 1993
was a reflection of structural changes, disintegration of the CMEA, removing the monopoly of foreign trade
and economic slowdown. When the new independent Czech Republic was established a part of the trade,
which used to be realized inside the state, began to be listed in the trade balance. The growth of
international trade was positively influenced by the trade with the Slovak Republic, the exports increased
after separation of the Federation, even though the trade with this country has gradually declined. The
following years were affected by start-up of the economic growth. Trade deficits in coming years clearly
showed a rising tendency. The largest decline occurred in 1996 when its balance amounted to -153 billion
CZK. If we compare the trade balance with GDP growth, we can see a certain relationship with deficits and
recovery of GDP.
The following chart shows the trade balance since 1993.
167
Graph 1: Foreign Trade of the Czech Republic
Source: [2]
As it is evident from the graph, the largest volume of exports and imports of goods and services was reached
in 2007 and 2008. Paradoxically, however, the real growth of GDP in 2008 reached 2.5% which was
influenced by the beginning of unfavourable economic situation. The highest GDP growth of 6.8% was
achieved by the Czech Republic in 2006 [3]
Graph 2: Trade balance (rounded to whole CZK bn)
Source: [2]
Looking at the graph we can see that in 2009 the Czech Republic had the highest trade surplus since 2005,
when foreign trade brought a trade surplus for the first time since the Czech Republic was established and
then it was characteristic for all following years. It happened despite of the poor economic situation in the
world, including our state. The balance of the foreign trade ended with a surplus of CZK 150 billion in this
year. Compared with 2005, foreign trade surplus in 2009 was almost 4 times higher and compared to 2008 it
more than doubled. The annual increase of the value of a positive trade balance was supported by the
favourable terms in exchange rates. Last year, the surplus reached the second highest level since 2005,
more than 120 billion CZK.
168
If we consider the territorial structure of our trade balance, we find that in recent years, the ranking of states
with which the Czech Republic traded most, is almost identical. The highest share of exports of goods has
been directed to Germany for several years, followed by Slovakia, the United Kingdom, France and Austria.
On the contrary, a passive trade balance of the Czech Republic is with China, followed by Russia, Japan,
Korea and Thailand.
Trade balance with selected countries
2010
change
Countries of the 2009
EU
in billions of CZK
Germany
165,8 192
26,2
Slovakia
78,3
97,1
18,8
United Kingdom
62,9
74,0
11,1
France
46,0
56,4
10,4
Austria
27,5
37,4
9,9
Sweden
14,7
18,9
4,2
Belgium
14,1
18,7
4,6
Netherlands
16,2
18,7
2,5
Italy
8,2
18,5
10,3
Spain
12,9
17,5
4,6
Romania
13,9
15,4
1,5
Bulgaria
7,1
6,5
- 0,6
Hungary
9,2
6,1
- 3,1
Finland
3,9
5,9
2,0
Denmark
1,8
5,3
3,5
Lithuania
3,1
4,2
1,1
Greece
5,1
3,6
- 1,5
Slovenia
2,7
3,2
0,5
Latvia
2,1
2,8
0,7
Portugal
1,8
1,9
0,1
Estonia
1,5
1,9
0,4
Poland
- 3,6
1,4
5,0
Cyprus
0,6
1,4
0,8
Malta
0,1
0,2
0,1
Luxembourg
- 0,6
- 1,1
- 0,5
Ireland
- 11,1 - 14,4 - 3,3
Total
484,2 593,5
109,3
Countries
outside the EU
China
Russia
Japan
Korea
Thailand
Thai-wan
Azerbaijan
Sigapore
Malaisia
US
Norwai
Indonesia
Kazakhstan
Vietnam
Ukraine
Philippine
Bangladesh
Switzerland
UAE
Izrael
Croatia
Hong Kong
Saudi Arabia
Belarus
India
Egypt
Total
2009
2010
in billions of CZK
-184,1 -268,3
- 53,0
- 62,4
- 54,4
- 48,3
- 21,5
- 33,3
- 20,6
- 28,2
- 16,7
- 22,1
- 11,2
- 20,9
- 11,9
- 18,1
- 13,1
- 16,2
- 7,6
- 9,2
- 3,0
- 6,5
- 4,0
- 5,0
- 3,0
- 4,8
- 3,9
- 4,0
3,2
- 2,6
- 1,5
- 1,8
- 1,8
- 1,7
10,6
16,3
9,5
9,4
2,7
6,9
6,4
6,3
4,4
4,4
4,0
4,3
2,4
4,2
2,3
4,1
3,2
4,1
-362,6 -493,4
change
- 84,2
- 9,4
6,1
- 11,8
- 7,6
- 5,4
- 9,7
- 6,2
- 3,1
- 1,6
- 3,5
- 1,0
- 1,8
- 0,1
- 5,8
- 0,3
0,1
5,7
- 0,1
4,2
- 0,1
0,0
0,3
1,8
1,8
0,9
-130,8
Table 1: Trade balance with selected countries in 2009 and 2010
Source: [4]
On closer inspection of the commodity structure we can see that automobiles are the largest part of our
exports, followed by machinery, metal products, semi-finished products and materials, industrial and
consumption goods and others.
SITC group with the greatest influence on the trade balance in 2010
positive influence
negative influence
SITC groups
bn CZK SITC groups
78 – road vehicles
250,8
74 – machinery and equipment used in
industry
69 – metal products
89 – different products n. o. s.
62 – rubber products
54,7
32,1
28,3
23,1
82 – furniture and parts, mats and
20,8
33 – petroleum, petroleum products and
related materials
34 – fuel gas
54 – medicinal and pharmaceutical products
68 – non-ferrous metals
77 – electrical machinery, apparatus and
appliances
67 – iron and steel
169
bn
CZK
- 96,4
- 62,6
- 41,3
- 39,4
- 27,3
- 25,5
mattresses
66 – non-metallic minerals products
32 – coal, coke and briquettes
72 – machinery specialized for particular
industries
76 – telecommunications equipment
24 – cork and wood
81 – prefabricated buildings, sanitary
ware
28 – metalliferous ores and metal scrap
79 – other transport equipment
63 – cork and wood (except furniture)
35 – electrical energy
73 – metalworking machinery
04 – cereals and cereal products
75 – computer Technology
25 - pulp and waste paper
7,7
6,8
5,6
5,3
4,5
4,5
Total
545,7
18,7
16,6
15,7
05 – vegetables and fruits
57 – plastics in primary forms
01 – meat and meat products
- 21,5
- 16,9
- 12,6
14,8
10,1
9,1
58 – plastics in non-primary forms
84 – clothing products and accessories
59 – Chemical materials and products n. o. s.
- 11,8
- 11,4
- 11,0
8,5
8,0
53 – dyes, pigments and tannins
87 – professional, scientific and controlling
devices
64 – paper, paperboard and articles thereof
23 – rubber (including synthetic)
07 – Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices
52 – inorganic chemicals
85 – shoes
29 – material from animal and vegetable
origin
Total
- 9,5
- 8,0
- 6,8
- 6,8
- 4,8
- 4,2
- 3,7
- 3,5
- 425,0
Table 2: Commodity structure of foreign trade in 2010
Source: [4]
The country's trade balance can be affected by many factors. In 2010, our balance of trade was affected,
either positively or negatively, mainly by the following factors:

Growth of industrial production especially in manufacturing industries

Unfavourable terms of exchange rates

Global economic recovery

Persistent weak domestic (especially consumer) demand
CONCLUSION
As mentioned earlier, the importance of exports and imports of goods and services in the economy of the
state is quite evident. For some countries the export of their products or services might be the main source
of income, without which they could hardly exist. On the other hand, imports of some commodities may be
essential for many states. The Czech Republic itself can be included there, because we are dependent on
imports of commodities such as oil, gas, etc. Of course, we will always try to manage a surplus balance of
our business so that our firms oriented on exports can prosper.
LITERATURE:
[1]
Platební
bilance
[online].
2010
[cit.
2011-02-03].
Dostupné
z WWW:
http://www.referaty10.com/referat/Ekonomie/2/tema-2-9-Ekonomie.php
[2]
Platební
bilance
[online].
2011
[cit.
2011-02-05].
Dostupné
z WWW:
http://www.euroekonom.cz/ekonomie-clanky.php?type=lekce18
[3]
Vývoj
platební
bilance
[online].
2011
[cit.
2011-02-06].
Dostupné
z WWW:
http://www.cnb.cz/miranda2/export/sites/www.cnb.cz/cs/statistika/platebni_bilance_stat/publikace_p
b/zpravy_vyvoj_pb/PB_2006_CZ.pdf
[4]
Vývoj platební bilance [online]. 2006 – 2011 [cit. 2011-02-06]. Dostupné z WWW:
http://dumfinanci.cz/tiskove-zpravy/obchodni-bilance-skoncila-v-listopadu-2007-prebytkem-11-3mld-kc
170
ADDRESSE:
Ing. Ladislav Obdržálek
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
tel.: 572 549 018, fax: 572 548 788
Ing. Vladimíra Hlaváčková
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
tel.: 572 549 018, fax: 572 548 788
Ing. Radek Habarta
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
tel.: 572 549 018, fax: 572 548 788
171
172
INSURANCE MARKET DEVELOPMENT IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC AFTER 1989
Ladislav Obdržálek, Jaroslav Kavka
Abstract: Insurance is one of the branches of the national economy, which contributes
significantly to the gross domestic product. In this field there have been significant changes in
our country especially after 1989. The changes were due to the release of the insurance market
and its availability to other insurance institutions. This changes had a positive impact not only
on an initial substantial market growth in both life and non-life insurance, but it also
significantly improved the supply of insurance products to clients. During the last two years
the Czech economy and as well other EU economies have been affected by the economic crisis
which resulted into the slowdown of national economy.
Key words: insurance, insurance company, life insurance, non-life insurance, insurance
contract, insured, insurance market
INTRODUCTION
The insurance market in our area had been monopolized until 1990 two insurance institutes, the Czech and
Slovak state insurance company. After this year the insurance legislation was influenced both by the gradual
decentralization of insurance in our country and by the harmonization of legislation with EU legislation.
Among the most important legislative changes, we can arrange the adoption of Act No. 185/1991 Coll., The
Insurance Act, which allowed competition in the insurance market. It was adopted in 1991. The period
before accession to the EU can be characterized as a period of gradual unification of legislation of the Czech
insurance law with EU legislation. The main reason for changes in legislation in the insurance sector was
the transition from a centralized insurance model based on the Soviet Union example to the efficient
competitive insurance environment. The Czech Insurance Association played an important role in the
change. Before the planned accession to the EU the new legislation had to be accepted because of Council
Directive 2002/92/EC and the European Parliament, which stated that it was necessary to remove barriers
that still exist and so that insurance brokers can freely provide their services.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSURANCE MARKET IN THE YEARS 2000 - 2010
In 2000, the share of insurance of GDP was at 3.6%, while in life insurance, these amounts to 1.2%.
Overall, the required insurance in 2000 was at the amount of CZK 69.3 billion, in non-life insurance, 46.5
billion CZK, in the life insurance CZK 22.8 billion. There were 41 insurance companies in the Czech
Republic then. For comparison, let us add that in 1994 there were in the CR 27 insurance companies with
total annual insurance amounting to CZK 29.0 billion, while in the life insurance has been collected CZK
7.4 billion and in non-life insurance, 21.6 billion CZK. It is so obvious that there has been a dynamic
development of this period. [1]
With the advent of the new millennium, however, new problems began to appear in the insurance market,
particularly in the area of dumping. Many insurance companies were trying to get the customer for so called
subsidized insurance, which could threaten the future stability of the industry.
Important role at the beginning of this period was played by Czech Insurance Association. The period was
characterized not only the gradual implementation of the legislative package of insurance (Law No. 37/2004
Coll. The Insurance Contract Act No. 38/2004 Coll. On Insurance Intermediaries and Independent Loss
Adjusters, Act No. 363/1999 Coll. insurance), but also by the establishment of the register of entities
operating in the insurance industry, which was initially led by the Ministry of Finance and since 2005 it was
transferred to the CNB. All these events had a significant impact on stabilizing the insurance market,
protecting consumers and on operators in the insurance sector in our country.
173
Scope of the Act No. 38/2004 Coll. on Insurance Intermediaries and Loss Adjusters enabled to rise to the
single European passport, under which foreign broker and entities were allowed to operate in the country.
Till 31st of December 12th 2005, about 328 branches and insurance companies from the EU showed interest
to operate in this activity too. There also was a growth of share of foreign capital in domestic insurance
companies. While in 1997 there were 33 domestic insurance companies, there were only 13 insurance
companies with predominantly foreign capital. In 2005 this number increased to 20 domestic insurers with
prevailing foreign capital from 33 insurance companies. [2]
The period between 2000 and 2010 was marked by the increase in required both life and non-life insurance.
In the following table we can see the volume of required insurance for selected members of the Czech
Insurance Association:
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
Period covered
69 284 554 79 197 369 89 319 073 104 635 906 111 585 544
Total premiums written
Premiums written in life
22 770 132 28 281 966 34 191 811 41 123 386
44 200 964
insurance
Premiums written in non46 514 422 50 915 403 55 127 262 63 512 520
67 384 580
life insurance
Table 1: Selection of premiums written by insurance industry with the members of CIA, 2000 - 2004
Source: [2]
Period covered
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Total premiums written 115 711 745 120 149 030 130 780 955 137 197 615 141 398 538 152 857 224
Premiums written in life
44 917 203 47 132 931 54 121 964 56 889 102 60 185 939 71 764 756
insurance
Premiums written in
70 794 542 73 016 099 76 658 991 80 308 513 81 212 599 81 092 468
non-life insurance
Table 1: Selection of premiums written by insurance industry with the members of CIA, 2005 - 2010
Source: [2]
180 000 000
160 000 000
140 000 000
120 000 000
100 000 000
80 000 000
60 000 000
40 000 000
20 000 000
0
Total insurance
Life insurance
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
20
06
20
07
20
08
20
09
20
10
Non-life insturance
Graph 1: Selection of insurance premiums in accordance with industry members of CIA
Source: [2]
IMPACT OF ECONOMIC CRISIS ON THE INSURANCE MARKET IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC
Before the economic crisis the insurance market in the Czech Republic was stable with a gradual increase in
premium collection, both in life insurance and non-life insurance. In 2007, the previous year by 15%
increase. The beginning of the economic crisis and the overall slowdown in growth was subsequently
monitored as early as 2008. Yet in this year in CIA members occurred the overall annual growth in
premiums of 5 %, both in life insurance and in the so-called non-life insurance. During the year 2009, which
can be characterized as the peak of the economic crisis in the Czech Republic, although there has been an
174
overall decline in GDP – 4, 1 %, the insurance market still recorded growth, which reached for the CIA
members to 3 %. Of course this year various insurance companies managed differently - some declined, but
some grow 12 %.
Between 2008 and 2009, however, we could experience a decline in insurance contracts in the insurance
area. The total decline amounted to 554,223 pieces of insurance contracts. In life insurance, this reduction
was most pronounced and reached 754,845 pieces. The above data suggest that the economic crisis had an
impact not only on the dynamics of growth of the insurance market, but also on the size of the portfolio. A
significant decrease in the number of insurance contracts of life insurance could be due to the frequent
drawing of money saved in life insurance.
At the end of 2010 a total of 53 subjects (including the Czech Insurers' Bureau), of which 35 domestic
insurance companies and 17 branches of foreign insurance companies operated on the Czech insurance
market. These members make up 98% of the total insurance market in the country. [2]
In this year's Life insurance was created by insurance linked to investment funds (47, 3 %), followed by
insurance for the survival or death (32, 6 %) and supplemental insurance (11 %).
For non-life insurance in the first place ranked liability insurance of vehicle (27, 1 %), followed by property
insurance (23, 9 %) and accidental insurance for land vehicles (18, 6 %).
The largest market share in 2010 has got the Česká pojišťovna (24, 6 %), the second place, the Kooperativa
(19, 8 %) and third in the Allianz (6, 8 %). [2]
CONCLUSION
Current trends in the distribution of life insurance indicate a progressive search for new distribution
channels. There is a gradual linking of banks and insurance companies and the emergence of so-called
bank-insurance entities. Their advantage is considerable savings in distribution channels. There is also the
fact that insurance companies are still trying to offer new products and allow the client to choose from a
large menu. The client has many more options. It is therefore important to understand the client's financial
advisor, called it a well-respected and appreciated that the client has a choice. Another important property of
the client is that you are more interested in what guarantees are provided by the product being offered, than
the product itself. The financial adviser would not be with the client in the discussion, which product is
better, whether our product or any other company as it could cause danger to the entire trade.
LITERATURE:
[1]
HOLUB, T. ČNB ČESKÁ NÁRODNÍ BANKA [online]. 2010 [cit. 2011-02-19]. Komentář ke
zveřejněným údajů o HDP za 2.čtvrtletí roku 2010. Dostupné na WWW:
<http://www.cnb.cz/cs/verejnost/pro_media/stanoviska/stanoviska_2010/10_hdp_2q.html>.
[2]
Výroční zprávy ČAP 2000 až 2010 [online]. 2010 [cit. 2011-04-20]. Dostupné na www:
http://www.cap.cz/ItemF.aspx?list=DOKUMENTY_01&view=pro%20web%20Výroční%20zprávy
[3]
HEIDEMA, James M. The Passionate Manager. první. Canada : Profesional Sales Plus, Inc., 2005.
231 s. ISBN 0-9737289-0-6.
ADDRESS:
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
tel.: 572 549 018, fax: 572 548 788
Ing. Jaroslav Kavka
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
tel.: 572 549 018, fax: 572 548 788
175
176
GOLD RESERVES OF CENTRAL BANKS AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT
Ladislav Obdržálek, Jaroslav Kavka
Abstract: The situation in the gold market, which prevails in recent years, has also affected the
amount of gold reserves of central banks in the world. Central banks have always kept part of
their reserves in gold, as is the case now. While a few years ago, the central bank got rid of
gold, they try to increase these reserves recently. This paper discusses the impact of the current
gold market on the gold reserves of central banks and their development.
Kay words: Gold, central bank, reserves, sales, purchase
INTRODUCTION
The current situation in the gold market, when its price and the demand continues to increase, mainly due to
fears of further economic development in the world, is affecting not only the gold traders, speculators and
small investors, but also in a way the central banks. They react to the growing fear and the related increase
of the importance of gold by increasing their reserves, which they currently hold in the form of gold.
Though, the central banks have got rid of gold since 1971, when the exchangeability of paper money for
gold ended, especially between 1996 and 1998. In 2000 the gold reserves amounted to only about 32 000
tonnes, of which Europe kept physically approximately 14 000 tonnes.
GOLD RESERVES OF CENTRAL BANKS IN THE WORLD
Since that time the central bank's gold holdings dropped to less than one fifth. According to the current
situation in the gold market and its prices these transactions brought about huge losses. The Czech Republic
in 1997 got rid of much of its gold reserves. While in 1990, it owned 77.4 tons; in 2000it was only 13.87
tons [1, s. 133]. At the present time it does not consider any increase in gold reserves.
The development of gold possession by central banks is shown in the following graph:
Graph 1: Possession of gold by central banks
Source: [5]
The central banks of many European countries concluded the Washington Agreement on Gold on 29th
September 1999 which accepted gold as an important element of global monetary reserves and established a
177
number of strict measures for dealing with it. An important milestone in the possession of gold by central
banks was also in 2009. In this year the central banks began to buy gold again. This change during the
current economic crisis can have long-term positive effects for gold. Increased demand for gold, for
instance, is reported from Asian countries, especially in China. Their gold reserves, however, significantly
increase in South Korea, which has purchased 24 tons of gold during the past few months. Other central
banks behave similarly, as Mexico which increased its gold reserves in May by four billion to the current
100 tonnes. The Czech National Bank owned at the end of 2010, 12.7 tons of gold [2].
Below there is an overview of the fifteen highest official gold reserves of central banks in the world in
2010:
Ranking
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Countries
USA
Germany
Italy
France
China
Switzerland
Qatar
Russia
Japan
Netherlands
India
Tchaj-wan
Portugal
Venezuela
Saudi Arabia
Quantity (t)
8 133,5
3 401,0
2 451,8
2 435,4
1 054,1
1 040,1
950,3
775,2
765,2
615,5
614,8
466,9
421,6
401,1
322,9
Table 1: Countries with the highest official reserves in 2010
Source: [3]
The above table shows that the largest reserves of gold are in the U.S., followed by Germany and Italy. The
sixteenth to twentieth place are subsequently placed Great Britain, Iran, Lebanon, Spain and Austria. The
Czech Republic, according to an official order is ranked on 65th place; Slovak Republic ended with stocks
31.8 tons on 51st place. The lowest possession of to the date was by Burundi, Haiti, Kenya, the Comoros
Islands and Omanand with 31 kg.
In addition to national gold reserves also institutions keep gold. The International Monetary Fund in 2010
owned a total of 2,846.7 tons of gold, the European Central Bank 522.7 tons of gold the Bank for
International Settlements 120 tons and the West African Economic and Monetary Union, then 36.5 tons of
gold. Around the world, so in 2010, central banks and institutions owned a total of 30 562.5 tons of gold [3].
RESERVES IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC
At the beginning of our gold currency reserves there were both many enthusiastic national collections and
smart decisions by Czechoslovak finance ministers and governors of the National Bank of Czechoslovakia
(NBCS) established in 1926. Law of 14 February 1925 stated the basic principal of NBCS in gold dollars
(12 million dollars of gold, which had accounted for 405 million Czech Crowns) with a third of the shares
reserved for the state. The remaining two thirds were offered to individuals and legal entities. In September
1938 NBCS held 94,722 tons of gold. Except for a small fraction (6.366 tons) the gold was moved abroad.
However, representatives of the Reich bank have forced the Czechoslovak gold reserves were handed over
to Nazi Germany as a "legal" successor of the Czechoslovak Republic. The post-war reality was 45.3 tons of
gold. After the war the Allies of Nazi found the gold stolen and according to a complicated formula
entitled to Czechoslovakia 24.5 tons of gold found at that time. In 1947 Czechoslovakia received an
instalment of 6.07 tons of gold. In 1948 the return of gold was blocked. Several times it was an agreement
for the return of gold literally around the corner, but only in 1981, negotiations with the governments of the
United States and Great Britain were successful. On 20th February 1982 finally 18.46 tons of gold were
transported from Zurich to Prague, to vault of the State Bank of Czechoslovakia (SBCS). According to the
178
then market price, its value was 200 million dollars [4, s. 247]. At the end of 2010, the Czech National Bank
held 12.7 tons of gold [2].
CONCLUSION
Forecasts for future gold prices and demand for it and the associated overall situation in the gold market
differ. While some are predicting an early decline in its price, others argue that the price of gold will
continue to grow, up to a limit of 2000 USD per troy ounce. In any case, we can say that if there is still
concern about the economic development of the world and return of the economic crisis the importance of
gold, as a means to which the subjects and the people tend in the period of uncertainty, will increase. With
that trend to increase the gold stock in central banks might continue on.
LITERATURE:
[1]
REVENDA, Z. Peníze a zlato. 1. vyd. Praha : Management Press, 2010. 257 s. ISBN 978-80-7261214-7
[2]
Deník, č. 190, 15.8.2011
[3]
Central Bank Gold Reserves [online]. 2011 [cit. 2011-05-17]. Dostupné na www:
http://www.gold.org/government_affairs/gold_reserves/
[4]
STRUŽ, J.; STUDÝNKA, B. J. Zlato – příběh neobyčejného kovu. 1. vyd. Praha: Grada, 2005. 336
s. ISBN 80-247-0902-3
[5]
Sprievodca investovaním do zlata [online]. 2003 – 2011 [cit. 2011-05-10]. Dostupné na www:
http://www.trimbroker.com/dokumenty/TRIMBroker-Sprievodca-investovanim-do-zlata-v2100922.pdf
ADDRESS:
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
tel.: 572 549 018, fax: 572 548 788
Ing. Jaroslav Kavka
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
tel.: 572 549 018, fax: 572 548 788
179
180
THEORY AND PRACTICE IN THE TEACHING OF THE FOREIGN TRADE - SELF
CONFIDENCE IN THE BUSINESS
Jan Prachař
Abstract: This paper discusses the importance to the teaching of foreign trade in particular,
practical teaching experience.
Key words: Personality trader personality of the teacher of foreign trade
THEORY AND PRACTICE IN THE TEACHING OF THE FOREIGN TRADE
Being a qualified foreign trader requires lifelong learning sector, in particular commodity. International
trade requires people healthy both physically and psychologically resistant to the increased load, stress and
able to endure the inconvenience arising from traveling, staying at a foreign environment, and so on.
In the commodity here is knowledge of the utility value of their product being sold, and the main competing
products. It is essential to know not only the advantages but also disadvantages of competition and analyze
the strengths and weaknesses of goods for the sale of the merchant is responsible. Commodity incredible
ignorance can cause trouble. In foreign trade, I worked for over twenty years, I engaged in selling a wide
range of products by selling diesel engines, generators and pumps. During my business travels I have
noticed that the language issue should be addressed in connection with the presentation. Many succumbed
to the impression that English has become a truly global Esperanto and devote efforts and resources to deal
with other languages, they seem pointless. It's a big mistake, because even though English is expanding
throughout the world, to become Esperanto still a lot missing. And it is quite natural that everyone feels
better after an offer in its own language, rather than be bothered reading in a foreign language. Countries
such as France would offer to pitch in a language other than the home will not tolerate at all. An important
factor in dealing with business partners is a discretion that is not merely a matter of education, but also
education and experience. Patience plays a very important role, particularly when dealing with Latin
Americans and Asians in particular. The little-examined when dealing with companies with which the
business relationship usually impersonal and cold. It would seem that moderation is more fully into the
register of personal attitudes to life, but for the business professional is also an important factor that can
positively or negatively affect the business meeting. Especially for overseas visits, the participants often
affords the utmost benefit. Furthermore Alcohol relaxes inhibitions and you often say more than is
desirable, which may very unpleasant affect the further course of action. An important criterion for selection
of employees is loyalty. This means above all loyalty to the company. You can forgive a mistake, a mistake,
a bad conclusion, but not intentionally damage the prestige of the partner company or the public.
High demand for foreign businessman can be achieved only if good mental and physical condition.
Psychological balance of man is given his own feelings but also with the situation in his personal life.
Working in foreign trade is the work team. If a team to meet the challenges must be composed of various
specialists and responsible, which in addition to these properties, and knowledge must be placed on the
management team. Such a professional is primarily a man of contacts that NATO is prepared to quickly
acquainted with strangers in different environments. The above description of the merchant is clear that
students studying foreign trade issues must also be equipped with practical advice about how the foreign
trade 'goes. " And such knowledge is obtained mainly from two sources, namely:
1st Practical training and experience in manufacturing companies during the study, which will be
involved in solving specific business cases
2nd Teachers equipped with a practical hands on experience of foreign trade
Currently published books dealing with foreign trade is a gateway into this issue, but without practical
application of the theory are graduates of the school always just beginners who are still in practice will have
to learn everything about the store.
Our School - The Kunovice Polytechnic Institute in the teaching of foreign trade has focused on practical
181
training and described it in the compilation of seminar topics and bachelor's work in which students solve
manufacturing firms selected for specific business cases. Involved in the processing of such price
calculation in the choice for truck shipping companies and container transport, conducting market research
and even the purchase and sale of consumable products. And sales of consumable products so that your
business by beginning to test the less complex commodity. Last year, our team of students presented the
products of leading foreign companies in the KABO in Brno. Students planning to participate at other fairs,
especially abroad. It is also for them the motivation to study.
On the topic of management in recent years, many published scientific literature. In the evaluation of our
staff in terms of their eligibility for work in specific conditions, especially abroad, achieved in the past,
Czech science very interesting results. Research conducted by the Institute for geographic medicine at the
Vinohrady hospital, but now has been discontinued, and today's HR managers of key departments believe
more diverse European experience, although the figures for us to grow up in an environment far removed
from the standard European conditions.
SELF – CONFIDENCE IN THE BUSINESS
People who are not self-confident depend excessively on the approval of others in order to feel good about
themselves. They tend to avoid taking risks because they fear failure. They generally do not expect to be
successful. They often put themselves down and tend to discount or ignore compliments paid to them. By
contrast, self-confident people are willing to risk the disapproval of others because they generally trust their
own abilities. They tend to accept themselves; they don't feel they have to conform in order to be accepted.
Self-confidence is not necessarily a general characteristic which pervades all aspects of a person's life.
Typically, individuals will have some areas of their lives where they feel quite confident, e.g. academics,
athletes, while at the same time they do not feel at all confident in other areas, e.g., personal appearance,
social relationships.
HOW IS SELF-CONFIDENCE INITIALLY DEVELOPED?
Many factors affect the development of self-confidence. Parents' attitudes are crucial to children's feelings
about themselves, particularly in children's early years. When parents provide acceptance, children receive a
solid foundation for good feelings about themselves. If one or both parents are excessively critical or
demanding, or if they are overprotective and discourage moves toward independence, children may come to
believe they are incapable, inadequate, or inferior. However, if parents encourage children's moves toward
self-reliance and accept and love their children when they make mistakes, children will learn to accept
themselves and will be on their way to developing self-confidence.
Surprisingly, lack of self-confidence is not necessarily related to lack of ability. Instead it is often the result
of focusing too much on the unrealistic expectations or standards of others, especially parents and society.
Friends' influences can be as powerful or more powerful than those of parents and society in shaping
feelings about one's self. Students in their college years re-examine values and develop their own identities
and thus are particularly vulnerable to the influence of friends.
ASSUMPTIONS THAT CONTINUE TO INFLUENCE SELF-CONFIDENCE
In response to external influences, people develop assumptions; some of these are constructive and some are
harmful. Several assumptions that can interfere with self-confidence and alternative ways of thinking are:

ASSUMPTION: “I must always have love or approval from every significant person in my
life."

ALTERNATIVE: This is a perfectionistic, unattainable goal. It is more realistic and desirable
to develop personal standards and values that are not completely dependent on the approval of
others.

“I must be thoroughly competent, adequate, and achieving in all important areas of my life."

ALTERNATIVE: This again is a perfectionistic, unattainable goal and suggests that personal
worth is determined by achievement. Achievement can be satisfying but does not make you
more worthy. Instead, worth is an inherent quality and all people possess it.

ASSUMPTION: “My past remains all important and control my feelings and behaviors in the
present."

ALTERNATIVE: While it is true that your confidence was especially vulnerable to external
182
influences during your childhood, as you grow older you can gain awareness and perspective on
what those influences have been. In doing so, you can choose which influences you will
continue to allow to have an effect on your life. You don't have to be helpless in the face of past
events.
SELF-DEFEATING THOUGHT PATTERNS
Subscribing to these harmful assumptions leaves you vulnerable to the following self-defeating thought
patterns:

All or nothing thinking. “I am a total failure when my performance is not perfect."

Seeing only dark clouds. Disaster lurks around every corner and comes to be expected. For
example, a single negative detail, piece of criticism, or passing comment darkens all reality. “I
got a C on one chem test, now I'll never get into medical school."

Magnification of negative/minimization of positive. Good things don't count nearly as much
as bad ones. “I know I won five chess games in a row, but losing this one makes me feel terrible
about myself."

Uncritical acceptance of emotions as truth. “I feel ugly so it must be true."

Overemphasis on statements. “I Should" statements are often perfectionistic and reflective of
others' expectations rather than expressive of your own wants and desires. “Everyone should
have a career plan when they come to college. I don't so there must be something wrong with
me."

Labeling. Labeling is a simplistic process and often conveys a sense of blame. “I am a loser and
it's my fault."

Difficulty accepting compliments. “You like this outfit? I think it makes me look fat."
The following strategies may help overcome such self-defeating thought patterns.
STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING CONFIDENCE

Emphasize strengths. Give yourself credit for everything you try. By focusing on what you can
do, you applaud yourself for efforts rather than emphasizing end products. Starting from a base
of what you should do helps you live within the bounds of your inevitable limitations.

Take risks. Approach new experiences as opportunities to learn rather than occasions to win or
lose. Doing so opens you up to new possibilities and can increase your sense of self-acceptance.
Not doing so turns every possibility into an opportunity for failure, and inhibits personal growth.

Use self-talk. Use self-talk as an opportunity to counter harmful assumptions. Then, tell yourself
to " substitute more reasonable assumptions. For example, when you catch yourself expecting
perfection, remind yourself that you can't do everything perfectly, that it's only possible to try to
do things and to try to do them well. This allows you to accept yourself while still striving to
improve.

Self-evaluate. Learn to evaluate yourself independently. Doing so allows you to avoid the
constant sense of turmoil that comes from relying exclusively on the opinions of others.
Focusing internally on how you feel about your own behavior, work, etc. will give you a
stronger sense of self and will prevent you from giving your personal power away to others.
TOP 10 QUALITIES OF A MANAGER
What qualities are most important for a manager to be effective? Below are the top 10 in rank order
according to frequency listed.
1. Inspires a shared vision
An effective manager is often described as having a vision of where to go and the ability to articulate it.
2. Good communicator
The ability to communicate with people at all levels is almost always named as the second most important
skill by project managers and team members. Leadership calls for clear communication about goals,
responsibility, performance, expectations and feedback.
183
3. Integrity
One of the most important things a project leader must remember is that his or her actions, and not words,
set the modus operandi for the team. Good leadership demands commitment to, and demonstration of,
ethical practices.
4. Enthusiasm
We tend to follow people with a can-do attitude, not those who give us 200 reasons why something can't be
done. Enthusiasm is contagious and effective leaders know it.
5. Empathy
Empathy - when a leader acknowledges that we all have a life outside of work.
6. Competence
Simply put, we must believe that that person knows what he or she is doing.
7. Ability to delegate tasks
Trust is an essential element in the relationship of a project leader and his or her team. You demonstrate
your trust in others through your actions - how much you check and control their work, how much you
delegate and how much you allow people to participate. Individuals who are unable to trust other people
often fail as leaders , or end up doing all of the work themselves.
8. Cool under pressure
In a perfect world, projects attitude would be delivered on time, under budget and with no major problems
or obstacles to overcome. But we don't live in a perfect world - projects have problems. A leader with a
hardy will take these problems in stride.
9. Team-building skills
A team builder can best be defined as a strong person who holds the team together
10. Problem solving skills
Although an effective leader is said to share problem-solving responsibilities with the team, we expect our
project leaders to have excellent problem-solving skills themselves.
LITERATURE
[1]
BENEŠ, V. A KOL. Zahraniční obchod. Grada Publishing : Praha, 2004, ISBN 80-247-0558-3.
[2]
BARNES, A.; JAMES, D. MOREHEAD, T. RICHARDS, E. L. Law for business – 4.edition,
McGraw International : New York, 2009. ISBN 0-256-08218-9.
[3]
Souhrná teritoriální informace 2008-2009 [cit.2010-03-15], dostupný na www:
http://services.czechtrade.cz/pdf/sti/sa?lvador-2007-10-31.pdf
CONTACT
Ing. Jan Prachař, Ph.D.
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
Czech Republic
[email protected]
184
CURRENT TREND OF INDIRECT TAXES IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC AND IN
SLOVAKIA
Ondřej Šabata
Abstract: Every country needs for its operation to ensure sufficient financial resources which
covers expenses for its own functioning, but also meets the demands of citizens for public
services, social services, etc. It is also the consideration of how to set up individual tax
brackets and accordingly the amount of tax in those zones, or one rate under a flat tax. In my
work I focused mainly on income taxation of individuals and legal persons in selected EU
countries.
Key words: Indirect taxes, economic, value added taxes, direct taxes,
This article deals with taxes that represents very important item in the list of economic sciences. There are
several important terms that should be known when you want to be interested in taxes. They are following:
Income is defined as mandatory, the law specified payment to the public budget. It is neutral payment, nonequivalent and periodical. There are taxes that are considered to be non-purposed. It means that a specific
tax in a certain amount of fund has a specific government project, but that becomes part of the total
government budget revenue. Non-equivalence of the taxpayer means it does not qualify for consideration at
the appropriate payment. [1, p. 9]
Taxes are used primarily to finance the public sector, i.e. the financing function of the state and public
administration. This is especially the financing of the army, government departments, to ensure the
maintenance of order, respect for law and protection of the rights and property, as well as the creation
maintenance and infrastructure costs associated with public administration and distribution of course related
to current transfer payments flowing to needy groups. In practice, the tax-financed items such as pensions,
health care, education, social factors, unemployment, public goods and ecology. Some of these items are
funded by taxes directly and completely, others indirectly or as complementary. [2, p. 10]
This article is interested in VAT (value added taxes). Generally we can divide taxes into two main groups:
a) Indirect taxes
b) Direct taxes
INDIRECT TAXES
EXCISE TAXES
Czech
Selected from mineral oils, alcohol, beer, tobacco, wine and intermediate products
Slovakia
Collected from wine, beer, tobacco, alcohol, mineral oil, electricity, coal and natural gas
VAT
Czech
basic rate of 20 %
reduced rate of 10 %
185
Height of VAT has changed since 1993. Its development is shown in the following table:
Date of changes
Reduced rate VAT
Basic rate VAT
1 st January 1993
5
23
1st January 1995
5
22
1st May 2004
5
19
1st May 2008
9
19
1st January .2010
10
20
Table nr. 1: Development of the changes in VAT in the Czech Republic
Source: [Own]
Slovakia
in 2010 a rate of 19 %
1. 5. 2010 to 31. 12. 2010 reduced 6 % of selected food
1. 1. 2011, base rate was increased to 20 % and reduced 10 % and a super rate is 6 %.
After a comparison of tax systems and studying the available information, we conclude that tax rates in all
countries compared to Slovakia. VAT has been used in Slovakia since 1993. Height of VAT has changed. List of the changes is in the table:
Date of changes
Reduced rate VAT
Basic rate VAT
1st January 1993
5
23
1st January1993
6
25
1st January 1996
6
23
1st January 1999
10
23
1st January 2003
14
20
1 st January 2004
-
19
1st January 2007
10
19
1st May
6/10
19
Table nr. 2: Development of changes in VAT in Slovakia
Source: [Own]
Goods or services
FOOD
WATER SUPPLYING
PHARMACEUTICAL
PRODUCTS
MEDICAL EQUIPMENT
BOOKS
NEWSPAPERS
FEES FOR CULTURAL LIFE
ACCOMMODATION
HAIRDRESSING
REPAIRING OF FURNITURE
CLOTHES
Czech Republic
10
10
Slovakia
6/19
19
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
20
10
20
10
10
19
19
19
19
19
19
Table nr. 3: Using of VAT rates for single products and services.
Source: [Own]
186
CONCLUSION
They are taxing the sale of goods (goods and services) and give and takes away the taxpayer to the tax
office. These are called indirect taxes because the tax is paid by the buyer but the buyer does not provide
any tax return and usually not even perceive that a tax is paid. Comparing the share of direct and indirect
taxes, volume is most important for the state budget VAT, excise duty and the third income tax and legal
persons.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[6] KUBÁTOVÁ, K.; VÍTEK, L. Daňová politika teorie a praxe. Praha: Nakladatelství
CODEX Bohemia, s.r.o., 1996. 376 s. vydání 1. ISBN 80-85963-23-X
[7] KOLEKTIV
AUTORŮ.
Správa
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platby
v
hotovosti
daňové
poradenství. Ostrava: Nakladatelství Sagit, a.s., 2007. 160 s. ISBN 973-80-7208-644-3.
[8] VAŇKOVÁ, A.; LÁCHOVÁ, L. Daňový rozhled učebnice základů daňového systému České
republiky. Praha: Nakladatelství VOX Consult s.r.o., 1995. 191 s. vydání 1. č. publikace 2-95.
[9] RYLOVÁ, Z.; TUNKROVÁ, Z.; ŠULC, I.; KRŮČEK, Z. Daňové zákony 2010
s komentářem.
Brno:
Nakladatelství
Computer
Press,
a.s.,
2010.
199
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ISBN 978-80-251-2904-3.
[10] KUBÁTOVÁ, K. Daňová teorie - úvod do problematiky. Praha: Nakladatelství ASPI, a.s., 2005. 112s.
vydání 1. ISBN 80-7357-092-0
[11] POSPÍŠIL, K. Vše co musí podnikatel vědět o daních. Finance.cz – Daně a svět. [online]. Praha: 2010
[2011-03-18]. Dostupné z WWW:<http://www.finance.cz/>.
[12] Daně na Slovensku. [online]. 2008 - 2011 [cit. 2011-02-05]. Dostupné z WWW:
<http://www.finance.cz/dane-a-mzda/svet/dane-EU/du648-9-slovensko/>.
[13] Portál daňovej správy Slovenské republiky. [online]. 2011.[cit. 2011-01-04]. Dostupné z WWW:
http://www.drsr.sk/wps/portal/!ut/p/kcxml/04_Sj9SPykssy0xPLMnMz0vM0Y_Qjz
KLN4g3MgsOAMmB2I76kXAhb31fj_zcVP0A_YLciHJHR0VFAIW0KSw../delta/base64xml/L3dJdy
EvUUd3QndNQSEvNElVRS82XzBfMjZUTw!!>.
CONTACT
Ing. Ondřej Šabata
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
[email protected]
187
188
IMPLEMENTATION OF STRUCTURAL FUNDS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF
CORPORATE IDENTITY IN CROSS-BORDER COOPERATION AS FACTOR OF
IMPROVING COMPETITIVENESS 1
Lenka Šimorová
University of Economics in Bratislava
Abstract: The proposal of the paper is to describe the possibility of using structural funds for
the development of Corporate Identity (CI) in cross-border cooperation in border regions of
the Slovak Republic (SR) and the Czech Republic (CR). CI is a strategic marketing tool used
mainly in the business environment, but it can be used also on regional and national level. An
examination of various parts of CI, it is possible to create a comprehensive picture of the
possibilities of building positive attitudes and opinions of individual citizens, businesses and
other participants not only to structural funds, but also to the EU itself. The article discusses
the particular Program of Cross-border Cooperation (CBC) SR and CR and development of
the relations between the regions falling under the scope of this program.
Keywords: Program of Cross-border Cooperation, Corporate Identity, Corporate Design,
Corporate Communication, Corporate Network
INTRODUCTION
Relations between the Czech and Slovak Republic have strong historical background of one republic, which
split into two republics in the 90s. Great proximity of the two countries, however, not vanished and
continues to flourish in many various activities and initiatives. After the communal entrance into the
European Union (EU) in 2004, relations between SR and CR, in addition to 21 agreements and contracts
(Czech Republic, p. 1), are being developed through operational programs of EU.
The concept of Corporate Identity (CI) is very interesting and somewhat very little explored, within the
purview of the SR and CR, is very comprehensive and is subject of strategic marketing management. The
concept of CI involves several parts, namely: Corporate Design, Corporate Communication, Corporate
Network, Corporate Culture, Corporate Image and Corporate Behaviour (Zorkóciová, 2007, p.25). This
represents an overall view of the company as to the external environment of the company and environment,
but also the internal environment and relationships that are formed in itself. Individual parts or whether they
represent, we can identify with different parts of human personality. Everyone has certain characteristics
and capabilities that presents externally and also responds to various influences from the outside and within.
The same logic can be applied to society. It focuses on internal processes, which in addition to
manufacturing products and services and overall internal management culture but must monitor external
influences and responds to them. Very important in the business environment is of course present their
results and their own signals, which the company sends to the external environment. It is necessary to track
and monitor them, because it is responding to those signals not only current customers but also potential.
Concept if CI is possible to examine in the production company, in a company providing services but also at
national, regional level. Region, for the purposes of the present paper, is based on the classification of
NUTS. NUTS - abbreviation of nomenclature of statistical territorial units represent the classification of
permanent geographical units of the EU Member States and candidate countries and also forms the basis of
regional statistics (Dictionary of state aid, 2010, p.1). NUTS is a hierarchical system, which sets minimum
and maximum number of people in the regions:
 NUTS 1: from 3 million to 8 million
 NUTS 2: from 800,000 to 3 million
 NUTS 3: from 150,000 to 800,000
1
The present paper is an integral part of research project VEGA: 1/0803/10 "The fundamental causes of
economic crisis, its impact on the economy of Slovakia as an EU member country, focusing on alternative
solutions in the sphere of international marketing strategies and business”.
189
In our case there are 3 regions NUTS3 in SR and 3 in CR.
The Community Assistance Initiative INTERREG III bases cross Border Cooperation Program between SR
and CR. The European Commission on 21.12.2007 approved the Operational Program Slovak Republic Czech Republic from 2007 to 2013 (OP SR-CR). With a budget of 92.7 million € from the European
Regional Development Fund (ERDF) program supports socio-cultural and economic development,
territorial accessibility and the environment in Slovakia-Czech border. The regions that are authorized for
OP SR-CR see Figure 1 Eligible regions SR and CR (Operational Program the Slovak Republic - Czech
Republic 2007 - 2013, p. 28).
Figure 1 Eligible regions SR and CR
Source: Operational Program Slovak Republic - Czech Republic 2007 - 2013
The main purpose of the joint development process of the SR and CR in the programming period 2007 2013 is to promote the common development of regions within the common Schengen area. This objective
is to provide conditions that will promote the development of a common region. Global objective of the OP
SR-CR is a continuing trend of bringing the two parts of the border region to the common cohesion, but also
to confirm the uniqueness and competitiveness of the region in an international context as it was initiated in
the previous programming period 2004-2006. OP SR-CR ensures the growth and convergence of
interdependence and cross-border regions and is made concrete through specific objectives, which are
filling the following priority axes (About Program 2007-2013, p.1):
1. Priority axis I: Support for socio-cultural and economic development of border regions and
cooperation
 It aims to promote cultural development and preservation of traditions, regional cooperation,
training, development of cross-border tourism and small-scale investment projects.
2. Priority axis II: Development of the border area and the environment
 It aims to promote the development of border traffic, environmental development and
landscape, and improving information and communication accessibility border.
Application of a Grant (G) under OP SR-CR may be submitted by public and nonprofit entities:
municipalities (associations of municipalities), self-organization established or state-based, self-governing
region or municipality, private non-profit organizations, schools, economic and Agrarian Chamber etc.
Support under OP SR-CR is provided by the grant from the ERDF and state budget of the SR and the CR.
The maximum level of support from the EU is 85% of the total eligible public expenditure. The rate of cofinancing from the state budget is tied to the type of the recipient and the State participating in the OP SRCR. The SR is a measure of co-financing from the state budget in general, 10% of the total eligible project
costs (except for ministries and state contributory organizations where co-financing from the state budget is
15%). The CR rate financing from the state budget - the budget of the Ministry for Regional Development,
5% of the total eligible project costs (except for Ministry for Local Development and the Center for
Regional Development, where the contribution from the budget of the Ministry for Regional Development,
190
15%). Organizational units of state and their contributory organizations (except the Ministry of Local
Development and the Center for Regional Development) are not eligible for co-financing from the budget of
the Ministry for Local Development and co-funding in the entirety of its part of the state budget.
This support is provided only as reimbursement on the basis of eligible expenditure actually incurred
substantiated relevant documentation by the partner. Partners are required to co-finance the project from its
own resources. The applicant declares that obligation by submitting proof of security financing, which is
liable for the request for the G. Minimum co-financing rate for partners is on SR 5% of the total eligible
costs for partners from CR 10% of the total eligible project expenditures. Given that support is provided as
reimbursements, the partners must have sufficient funds to ensure the ongoing financing of the activities
carried out. Rules for funding projects in the SR based on the funding strategy of the Structural Funds and
Cohesion Fund for the period 2007 - 2013 and the financial management of state budget and Cohesion Fund
for the programming period 2007-2013. Rules for the financing of these projects in the CR based on the
methodology of financial flows and control of programs financed by the Structural Funds and Cohesion
Fund and European Fisheries Fund for the period 2007 - 2013. In general, the minimum financial
contribution from the ERDF for the project is more than 20 000 EUR. Projects with the required financial
support from ERDF less than 20 000 EUR are supported by the Fund microprojects. The upper limit for the
project is not strictly fixed (not micro).
DIMENSIONS OF CORPORATE IDENTITY
OP SR-CR is a basis for cooperation especially in the regions especially in the field of culture, social
networks and infrastructure. On this basis, projects under the operational program, must be realized,
managed and presented externally in one line and through a concept that could be called the concept of CI at
the level of regional cooperation.
Corporate Design (CD) means a transfer of common information across all company/ region presentation
outputs (Corporate Identity, 2008, p.2). Under this term fall state symbols, logos, slogans, business cards,
letterheads, envelopes, website, brochures, catalogs, manuals, advertising, print, television and Web
advertising, promotional items, and everything that has a firm or region to present the public domestic and
foreign, or a specialized group of potential clients. The most important criterion of the CD is mainly to
create a single face. Uniformity contributes mainly to the customer feelings and attitude, with which
company he will associate the positive feelings and benefits. CD is a message that reflects the ideological
principles of value-total CI.
The overall design, which is the OP SR-CR is affected by the regulations of the National Council of SR and
CR, the European Parliament and Council. CD is created by the so-called logomanual, which particulars of
the OP SR-CR logo indicate, which must be clearly marked and given to projects implemented under OP
SR-CR.
Figure 2 Logo OP SR-CR
Source: Logomanual OP SR-CR
The basic shape is made up of brand-color rectangle with rounded corners, into which is embedded in text.
Make it by the inscription denoting the name of the project, which is the full text irradiation to the left to the
right side of the square. Precise instructions to create the logo are also given for black and white, color,
white, mesh options. Exclusion zone of marks is used in each application to ensure that the logo will be well
read and not linked with some random visual element, which could lead to misinterpretation of the
unconscious visual brand. This exclusion zone is defined by 50% by reducing the amount of tags that
dimension in every corner of the label creates a buffer zone. Within this zone must not interfere with any
text or graphics. Given the fixed combination of four corporate colors is desirable to use them as much as
tolerable as possible. Beneficiary of OP SR-OP must be mindful of constancy and adapt logomanual on
every graphic design communication materials. Basic corporate font is desirable that all materials contained
only the basic font. In cases where the use of technological reasons, cannot be used, there can be used
supplemental font. Choice of basic or supplemental font depends on the particular situation.
191
Figure 3 Types of font
Source: Logomanual OP SR-CR
Symbol OP SR-CR occurs on all communications materials stemmed correspondence, located on the notice
boards
in the vicinity of this project. This section is the most visible part of CI in the eyes of all subjects. Visible
signs of having different functions and information, communication, representative and is addressed in
particular regions of the citizens, businesses and community leaders in the mentioned regions and other
regions. Objectives of the operational programs, which are part of the structural funds going to the new EU
countries, are to create equality between regions, which are less developed than the old members of EU. By
identifying projects that help to sweep these differences, the EU is building a positive relationship to all
citizens.
Internet is the most common form of providing and seeking information. OP SR-CR has a website. This site
presents interactive interface between the applicant for G, beneficiaries, public and staff. On this page we
can find all relevant information relating to applications, instructions and other materials and documents
relevant to the possible application of G. At the same time there are successfully implemented projects OP
SR-CR in this program last year as well. Simultaneously, this method can be included in the next section of
CI and it is Corporate Communications (CCom) (Corporate Communications, p.1). Objective of CCom is to
create a positive attitude towards the company / region and maintain a uniform style of speech
communication both internally and externally. CCom element must have an umbrella - corporate strategy.
CCom can be incorporated into various forms of expression desired, unwanted, planned and unplanned as
advertising, sales promotion, public relations, personal selling, sponsorship, exhibitions and fairs, company
presentations on campus, stories, representation. Through various promotional items such as shirts, pens,
pencils, notebooks, the OP SR-CR is visible in the eyes of the inhabitants of border regions, both as a gift,
these items serve to communicate the subject in other regions as an information element that hang on the
information that this project works.
CD forms the visual side of organization and CCom the verbal side. CCom of OP SR-CR is acting also on
social network Facebook, which is devoted to the latest information regarding the challenges and initiatives.
We can say that this part of CCom is not very useful. Despite that on this social network is registered about
200 000 people from Slovakia and 550 000 people from the CR (Facebook Statistics, 2011) and the profile
of OP SR-CR has only 20 registration. This number refers to the small publicity of the program.
Information collected by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of the SR, which is established
by the Joint Technical Secretariat and the Ministry for Local Development - Centre for Regional
Development, communication is governed mainly by mail and telephone. Devoted staff provides
information on how to use the G under OP SR-CR.
Corporate Network (CNet) represents another part of CI, while the importance of this part came to the fore
in particular the frequent use of the internet in the world. As mentioned earlier OP SR-CR uses
(http://www.sk-cz.eu/) website where applicants, the public and businesses receive the information. At
present the website contain the contact form, where the applicant can enter their data and queries.
Hyperlinks on the page SR OP-CR should be present in the pages of the mentioned regions. Among the six
eligible regions such link is present at 5 regional sites in the region: Moravskoslezský, Zlínsky,
Jihomoravský, Žilinský and Trenčiansky. Trnava region, where it was not possible to find a link to the
operational program. While a direct contact to the operational program have only Trenčín and Žilina region.
As CCom, CNet also falls under the information technology system, without which this would be ruled the
project. Communication channels must function correctly so problems can be overcome simply and
effectively.
Corporate Culture (CC) affects the overall atmosphere, the various work processes, communication between
management and employees but also between employees themselves and affects the performance and
motivation
192
of employees. It relies on values, attitudes, ideas, processes and standards organizations. CC represent the
basic values, norms and general rules in state government, therefore what is accepted and is considered
appropriate and desirable in the regional level. It is important that employees identify with the culture that
you receive when starting work, otherwise it would have felt internal inconsistencies with their own values,
which would be reflected in their work. This part of the CI is given in terms of individual regions. OP SRCR is designed to promote the cultures of the SR and CR, and supports their flourishing. In goal of this
operational program is to promote cultural development and preservation of traditions. Accordingly to this
objective there are various events and projects organized. It is important to people close culture of these
regions to other regions in order to still maintain traditions.
The last part of CI is Corporate Image (CIm) (Corporate Image, p.1). Mental image, which comes at the
mention of the name. CIm has a cartridge in two aspects. The first is the aspect of how the region wishes to
be perceived environment, is the desired value. The second aspect is true, i.e. what in fact it is. It is the
impression the public perception of the region, its values, media activities, statements and reputation. It's a
psychological picture of the public, which is not always a reflection of the status quo. This part of the CI is
very "fragile" and may change from day to day, just because a negative report and a quick reaction time,
media terminated prosperous period. Through the leverage of the individual components CI can build a
positive image. This is true even if the OP SR-CR, whose role is to increase interdependence and
convergence of cross-border regions of the SR and CR. This objective will be trying different entities of the
regions, by means of SR-OP CR, pursued through the implementation of projects to promote culture,
society, travel and tourism = it ultimately the competitiveness of these regions. This is evidenced by the
following projects: Children's art overcomes boundaries (Elementary School and Elementary art school
parties) Archaeological Mikulčice-Kopčany (conservation of the environment and landscape - Masaryk
Museum in Hodoníně), Slovakia-Czech Creating a cluster to support innovative technology in the border
region (Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava), Movement unites us and each develops (Elementary School
Mánesova) Reconstruction of road section Turzovka - White II. Stage (Žilina region), completion of
infrastructures Upper Srnie / Brumov-Bylnice (Srnie Upper Town), Information Without Borders. Building
information society through a combination of KIS (Žilina region), Heritage Preservation in Czech-Slovak
border (Village Lomna) Aeroškola with Mary and Gretel (elementary school Huslenky), Boy Scouts on the
net (Junák - Association of Scouts CR, district Brno - city), etc. (successful project, p.1).
Level of individual regions is not the same as can be seen in Chart 1 GDP per capita.
As we can see from the chart 1, the highest value of GDP per capita is in the region of Trnava (Slovakia)
and Jihomoravský (CR). At the same time these regions are adjacent and located on the borders with
Austria. The impact of regional differences on the level of development could be analyzed in future
research.
Chart 1 GDP per capita
Source: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/statistics/search_database
193
CONCLUSION
The objective of the paper was to describe the possibility of using structural funds for development or crossborder cooperation in the border regions of the Slovak Republic (SR) and the Czech Republic (CR). The
concept comes from the CI, while the business environment, but the benefits of this tool can be used at
regional and national level. CI analysis of individual parts such as: Corporate Design, Corporate
Communication, Corporate Network, Corporate Culture and Corporate Image, we concluded that the SROP CR contributes to building relationships and developing the border regions of the SR and CR, while it
would be useful to improve the timeliness of the information website and contribute to building positive
attitudes and opinions of individual citizens, businesses and other participants not only to structural funds
but to the EU itself.
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194
CONTACT
Lenka Šimorová
University of Economics in Bratislava
Faculty of Commerce, Department of International Trade
Dolnozemská cesta 1
852 35 Bratislava
Slovak Republic
tel: 00421-904-514-308
195
196
CURRENT CONDITIONS FOR GRANTING CREDIT TO SMALL AND MEDIUMSIZED ENTERPRISES (SME)
Staníková Zuzana, Kozubíková Zuzana
Katedra makro a mikroekonomiky FRI Žilinskej univerzity v Žiline
Abstrakt This article deals with a problems of creating conditions, supporting and granting
credit to small and medium-sized enterprises in post-crisis period in the European Union and
the framework of the supply of selected bank institutions. The article detailed the various
possibilities of obtaining credits for investment projects by the European Investment Bank
(EIB) and the Slovak Guarantee and Development Bank (SZRB – Slovenská záručná a
rozvojová banka).
Keywords credits, krisis, small and medium-sized enterprises, EU, banks
1. INTRODUCTION
Small enterprises are the basis of every economy and contribute significantly to employment. In the event of
changes in business environment, responding first and most sensitive, and soon after them responding a
medium-sized enterprises too. That was also in times of crisis. In the post-crisis period, react very slowly to
stimulations reviving economy. Therefore, still require the support and the best possible conditions for
business by the EU and individual Member States of EU. Support is targeted to education and training
legislation (regulation, taxation systems, stimuli), spread of technology towards SMEs, with emphasis on
cooperation and exchange between European enterprises each other.
The EU has long been taking steps to improve access to granting credit from banks to SMEs, because the
financial markets and financial institutions are often reluctant to encourage their investment projects. The
EU is actively improving relations between SMEs and the banking system by creating appropriate access
conditions to credit and venture capital. Cooperation in this field is progressing between the European
Commission and European Investment Bank.
2. SUPPORTING SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES FROM THE EUROPEAN
INVESTMENT BANK (EIB) AND THE SLOVAK GUARANTEE AND DEVELOPMENT BANK
(SLOVENSKÁ ZÁRUČNÁ A ROZVOJOVÁ BANKA - SZRB)
2.1 EUROPEAN INVESTMENT BANK (EIB)
EIB is the European Union financial institution, whose mission is to contribute to achieving EU policy
objectives by financing sound business projects. It is works within a three-year operational plan, which is
updated annually and approved by the board [6]. The current operational plan 2011 - 2013 is in line with the
planned gradual return to pre-crisis level. Operational Plan seeks to maintain a balance between different
types of credit products and the possible risks and generally have a positive impact on growth and potential
of European economies.
EIB's lending activities are focused on [6]:
• Economic and social cohesion and convergence, to support the economy of less developed regions of
Europe
• Implementation of the knowledge economy
• The development of trans-European networks (TEN)
• Support for small and medium-sized enterprises
• Protecting and improving the environment and promoting sustainable communities
• Support the creation of sustainable, competitive and secure energy supply
Projects supported by the EIB must be in accordance with the objectives of the credits. If the client meets
197
the criteria generally the bank will borrow funds up to 50% of investment cost of the project. EIB provides
two types of loans. The first type are individual loans are granted for investment projects and programs
worth more than 25 million euro and intermediated loans (credit lines of banks and financial institutions),
which serve to secure the financing of investment programs and projects for SMEs with a cost of less than
25 million.
Between the European Commission and European Investment Bank signed a cooperation agreement to
encourage investment in research, development and innovation (RDI) and thus enhancing competitiveness,
promoting sustainable economic growth and employment in the EU. The agreement is known as the
Financial Instrument Risk Sharing (Risk Sharing Finance Facility - RSFF). Funding from RSFF is intended
for investors regardless of company size and property - for small, medium and large enterprises, publicprivate companies, research institutes, universities and scientific and technological parks. RSFF to support
research and innovation projects with higher risk and complements existing support instruments including
national and EU grants.
European Investment Bank in 2011 strongly supports small and medium-sized enterprises. Approximately
half of these loans will go to Central and Eastern Europe. In previous years especially during the financial
crisis EIB push strategy "to ensure financial stability" throughout Europe. EIB with its direction meets the
directive, which came from the ranks of ministers of EU Member States a few years ago. From this
Directive has followed to increase the volume of EIB credits of 30 billion euro. In recent years, most of
these credits ended in developed countries of Western Europe, but in the last two years have been
deliberately moved to countries of Central and Eastern Europe. This money helped in times of economic
crisis, banks in particular Turkey and Poland.
After the financial crisis has grown into an economic crisis of drawdown significantly faster access to
money and it was still difficult. EIB therefore controlled commercial banks, which were responsible for
distributing funds from the EIB funds crisis. These funds are not used to promote their own balance sheets,
but to lend to SMEs. Therefore, banks must demonstrate that they use these funds for lending to SMEs. In
2010 it was according to data ** EMI (Equated Monthly installments) borrowed an average of € 157,000 ***
for 63 000 small and medium-sized enterprises and micro-credit program were for credits of up to 10,000
euro.
2.2 SLOVAK GUARANTEE AND DEVELOPMENT BANK (SLOVENSKÁ ZÁRUČNÁ A
ROZVOJOVÁ BANKA - SZRB)
Slovak Guarantee and Development Bank (SZRB) on unlike commercial banks, is a specialized banking
institution aiming to support business activities of SMEs, also municipalities and owners of residential
buildings that do not have sufficient bank guarantee for commercial banks. SZRB working with banks and
other organizations aimed at supporting small and medium enterprises. The results of this cooperation are
products aimed at business support this group of entrepreneurs.
In January 2009 SZRB signed a memorandum of cooperation with commercial banks, the Export-Import
Bank and the Ministry of Finance of Slovak Republic, which pledged to provide guarantees for loans of
commercial banks to small and medium-sized businesses, condominiums, and administrators for housing
renovation. The amount of guarantees for entrepreneurs is 55% of the principal of the credit the maximum
credit amount is 340,000 euro. [7] The good thing about this memorandum is to simplify the current
administrative site warranty programs and equipment loan guarantee, together with directly in a commercial
bank
Bank guarantees for credits
SZRB provides entrepreneurs (natural and legal persons, municipalities), who in other circumstances do not
qualify for a credit, bank credit guarantees to finance projects and business development.

In 2007 the agreement was signed simultaneously in the EU during the 4th European Conference on Research Infrastructure
(ECRI 2007) in Hamburg and by the EIB for the annual meeting of the Council of Governors of the EIB in Luxembourg.
**
When using EMI repayment interest is first calculated for the entire duration of the credit and added to principal. Then the
resulting amount divided by the number of months, if interest month (according to the number of conversions per year)
*** To illustrate the Sk would be 4,729,782 Sk
.
198
Bank guarantees allow:
• get municipalities that do not have adequate provision of loan funds for the construction of rental
housing base;
• to raise funds for the rehabilitation of housing stock in residential homes, and to improve their energy
efficiency
• to raise funds for the purpose of repairs, reconstruction and modernization of residential buildings in
order to restore and improve the functionality of buildings.
SZRB provide a bank guarantee with a direct or indirect security for loans in domestic currency (euro) or
the foreign currency loans granted by commercial banks
1. Bank guarantee to direct provision is provided up to 60% of the loan principal, up to a maximum
€ 500 000 with validity of bank guarantee within 7 years.
2. Bank of indirect security guarantee is provided by up to 60% of the loan principal, up to a
maximum of € 1,000,000 with a duration of a bank guarantee in 10 years.
CREDITS
SZRB provides clients with various types of credits, which aims to promote the development of small and
medium-sized enterprises and facilitate access to credit sources. Examples include MIKROúver (microcredit) and credit products PODNIKATEĽKA (Businesswoman), which aims to facilitate access to credit
sources start or existing small businesses. Úver PODNIKANIE MLADÝCH (YOUNG ENTERPRISE
credit) product provides seed money for university study during or after its termination, to support the
business activities of young entrepreneurs
Through a special direct credit the Bank supports business development in rural areas (Úver VIDIEK
(RURAL credit)), and provides funding long-term investment in infrastructure (Úver Rozvoj III – Obce
(Development credit III - VILLAGE)). In order to reduce the energy intensity of buildings and energysaving product offers Bank credit for rehabilitation of housing stock for the association of owners of flats
and business premises to finance investment projects to repair, modernization and reconstruction of
residential houses.
3 CONCLUSION
Paramount, which makes development and maintenance of the market for small and medium-sized
enterprises are the availability of external resources - mainly credits. Small and medium-sized enterprises in
times of crisis implement energy saving programs, which include truly versatile and cost reduction from not
taking new employees, but also layoffs, restrictions on production capacity, to "freeze" of investment and a
deep restructuring of [2]. In the post-crisis period is very slow to revive their business activities, which
again are subject to the availability of credit. Support for SMEs is aimed mainly to promote investment in
innovation, which are relatively risk and meet the criteria for obtaining credit from commercial banks.
Acknowledgement: This work has been supported by the grant VEGA 1/0992/11 “Cooperative
Management - an innovative approach to business”.
REFERENCES:
[1]
KOZUBÍKOVÁ, Z.: Problematika rizika v podmienkach MSP. Zborník z medzinárodnej konferencie
„Vysoká škola jako facilitátor rozvoje společnosti a regionu“ s. 69 – 74, 22.1.2010, Hodonín, ČR.
2010
[2]
KUCHARČÍKOVÁ, A., TOKARČÍKOVÁ, E., ĎURŠOVÁ, M., JACKOVÁ, A., KOZUBÍKOVÁ,
Z., VODÁK, J.: Výrobné faktory. Computer Press, Brno, 2011
[3]
STRIŠŠ, J. a kol.: Marketingové riadenie. Žilinská univerzita v Žiline, EDIS-vydavateľstvo ŽU,
Žilina, 2009
[4]
http://www.investmentinsider.eu/eib-crisis (cit.111505)
[5]
http://www.investmentinsider.eu/france-leads-in-foreign-investments (cit.111505)
[6]
http://www.eib.org/products/loans/ (cit.111505)
[7]
http://www.szrb.sk/Default.aspx?CatID=45&NewsID=101 (cit.111505)
[8]
http://www.szrb.sk/Default.aspx?CatID=285 (cit.111505)
[9]
http://www.szrb.sk/Default.aspx?CatID=32 (cit.111505)
199
CONTACT
Staníková Zuzana,
Slovenská republika
Tel.: ++421/41 5134407
e-mail [email protected]
Kozubíková Zuzana
Tel.: ++421/41 5134423
e-mail [email protected]
200
MARKETING PLANNING IN REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Jozef Strišš, Jaroslav Kavka
Abstract: The papers are focused on the characteristic of the separate phases of planning a
regional process. They describe the conceptual, analytical, design, realization and control
phase of the process. The phases are analysed form the strategy for the region development
point of view.
Key words: Marketing planning, regional development, marketing aims strategy of the region.
The regional marketing represents a new element in solving problems in the given area (district, county)
which hast to find the possibilities and ways of penetrating the local market, which is the place where the
local demand and supply meet, in the effort to ensure the prosperity of the area and the satisfaction of
inhabitants.
The characteristic feature of marketing is orientation towards the customer and his/her needs. In business
the marketing covers different techniques, means and aims targeted to the development and offer of
products, stating the price, the way of delivering to customers and choice of tool fro communication with
customers. The core of marketing is to find out the customers´ needs and their satisfaction.
In the commerce marketing the process is realized by changing money for products. These processes are in
the local marketing as well. The problem is that there is not always a possibility to specify the subject of the
change in the area. The product offered by the area marketing is more than a place. It is the opportunity for
investment, business or a visit or other offer as e.g. citizens, idea, institutions, place, services, events etc.
From the mentioned it results the variety of products – place offer.
In the area marketing we do not speak about customers in the same way as in the commercial marketing but
we use the expression as the target group, which can be the citizens in the region( individuals, families,
managers) other people (tourists, investors) or institutions (banks, firms, school). The role of the regional
marketing is to research and analyse their need in a systematic way.
The aim of the regional marketing is that the target group will react on the offer of the region and on its base
they change the place of living, work or decide to invest to the region and do business there, spend the
leisure time, study or visit the region for other purpose.
Strategy expresses the direction and orientation of the development activity of the area in the long term
horizon. It represents the announced, agreed and by all interested parties confirmed ways how to achieve the
long term targets and priority in the area development. The confirmed strategy is projected into long term
plans for further development of the area (village, town, region or higher local complex). Due to its
concentration and range the strategy goes over the framework of the so far prepared documents designed at
the level of the local administration.
The process of marketing planning consists of five phases (see picture 1).
CONCEPTUAL PHASE
 Definition of the vision of the region or village.
 Formulation of shared value, philosophy and mission.
 Specification of the strategic development aims.
ANALYTICAL PHASE (LEARNING AND ANALYSING THE TREND IN THE ENVIRONMENT)
 Analysis of political, economical, social, demographic, technological and ecological trends.
 Detailed analysis of external environment.
 Detailed analysis of internal environment.
 Competition analysis in the area or market (e.g. investors market, estate market, accommodation
market, labour market etc.).
201
DESIGN PHASE AND THE CHOICE STRATEGY.
 Definition of the special development aims for very area of life in the area, village
 Preparation of variants and the choice of the most suitable marketing strategy.
REALIZATION PHASE.
 Formulation of the realization programmes (marketing mix),
 Control of strategy realization.
 Environment monitoring and re-evaluation of realization and strategy.
Control phase. Comparison of the real state wit the expected one using the quantitative and qualitative
method and stating the variation.
Picture no. 1: Phases of marketing planning in the regional development.
Conceptual phase
Analytical phase (learning
and analysing the trend in
the environment)
Design phase and the choice
strategy.
Realization phase.
Control phase.
Source: Own process
1. CONCEPTUAL PHASE.
The important condition to apply marketing in the early phase of preparation is to formulate a vision,
mission and aim (picture2) for the area. The decisions regarding vision or aims of the area are motivated by
the area needs and its inhabitants and there is a need to formulate them and consult with the public.
Discussed and confirmed vision and aims are the base for acceptance of further system decisions through
which the dynamic and progressive development of the area and growth of the quality of life are achieve.
Vision is the conception about the region within 10-15 years. It states what position the area wants to have
in the country or in the world. It should contain the general accepted goals which results from conception of
the aim groups and as well of the other players in the marketing area.
Philosophy and mission – the philosophy declares the rules of behaviour towards the public and public
administration. It states the norms of behaviour and they are designed e.g. in an ethic codex.
202
“Mission is an agreed and published statement about why and for whom and in which way the institution
functions.” 1 It represents a sense or purpose of the area or region. It is an obligation which the local
administration must be stuck to in all its activity.
Picture 2: Vision, philosophy and mission of the region.
Vision
philosophy
mission
Source: Own process
The important role in the frame of the strategic planning is to state the marketing aims. They represent the
future state we want to achieve by realization of the strategy. They are an important attribute while
evaluation and the control.
Marketing aims must be more specific formulated with regard to the content, range and time feature and
they have different hierarchic order from strategic aims to tactical targets.
2. ANALYTICAL PHASE.
Using marketing suggests the quality marketing analysis. In practice the most of the analyses are realized
only in connection to the internal potential of the area or to external conditions. Little attendance is given to
the reality that the analysis of the area must be more complex in comparison with the analysis of the
businesses. The quality analysis is focused on the market of the domestic inhabitants, tourists and visitors
of the town, investors and competition. The analysis should be performed according with the principle from
inside to outside. In this way we ensure the survey and usage of the data which have a real importance for
decision of the area development.
First, we use the existing data, accessible documents (area plan, strategic plan, and area data) which are
gathered and evaluated during the analytic phase. It is basically the secondary research. Then we continue
on with the complex analysis of the area (mostly executed by the external firm) regarding to the external
environment (threats and opportunities) and internal environment (strengths and weaknesses). Current
complex analysis consists of finding out the “hard” social, economical, environmental and other statistics as
well as from “soft” subject requirements and needs of target groups (using image, analysis, questionnaire,
interview, open discussion, panel discussion, brainstorming etc.).
In this way we can gain the complex marketing analysis the result of which is SWOT analysis. The market
needs should be evaluated towards the possibilities, threats, strengths and weaknesses. The target market or
target segments and position of the area should be defined. Importance of the area development is
determined by the relation of strengths, weaknesses, possibilities and threats, demand, competition strength
and ability of the local management process, evaluate and use the information and then formulate the
marketing strategy and its alternatives
3. STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT PHASE.
The strategy expresses the direction and orientation of the development activities of the area in the long
term horizon. It is a result of the strategic planning process and it answers the basic questions:
 Where are we now,
 How have we got here,
 Where are we going,
 Where do we want to get,
 How can we get there
Solution of these questions is and inevitable condition for strategy design for a business.
From the organization point of view it is possible to approach the strategy design in different ways. The
marketing strategy is a result of a rational planning of the local administrative or it can emerge without a
previous stated formal plan from a subject in the area. In optimum it is a result of cooperation of public
sector, private sector and non government organization and it is introduced for discussion to public.
4. REALIZATION PHASE.
In this phase the realization of aims and strategy is converted into the concrete marketing measures.
203
Realization management is ensured by marketing tools as product, price, accessibility, promotion, processes
and human potential. In order to support the realization of individual measures the professional working
teams are created.
Representatives of all activities (transport, accommodation, tourism, town development etc.) take part in the
working groups which means the groups consist of from experts through public administrative,
entrepreneurs to reps of the public activists.
Introduction of the area marketing into practice is related to certain problems which result from the different
understanding of the individual players in the areas, from their deferent expectation, readiness for
introduction of marketing management into the performance of the players including the separate
department of the public administration, lack of finance etc.
5. CONTROL PHASE.
Area marketing is influenced by changing micro and macro environment. From this reason there is a need to
perform control, which represents comparison of the real situation with expected state trough qualitative and
quantitative methods and it finds variations. Monitoring and evaluation of the process brings a feedback and
based on the gained information we can react to the given situation.
In the developed economies the trends in free market economy direct to a global understanding of the
market and then to application of the wider understood marketing activities of the critical market subjects.
The activity comes out of the effort to increase the total production or enlarge the covered market area. The
behaviour of big and advanced firms is logical. It is probable that the big area will be for realization of small
firms as there are specific issues in smaller regional markets.
Without small and medium sized companies there is no possibility for creation of the corporations. The
small and medium sized companies offer such goods which cannot be delivered by big firms from different
reasons (specific, complicated or in small amount). The small and medium sized companies in most
economies create 80% of players in the market place and they contribute to higher competitiveness and total
variety of the goods offer.
“In spite of the fact that the world globalization process is going on we cannot forget that it must start and
grow on the foundation built by lower market economies.”1
These levels have the regional character. From the above mentioned it is clear how important is not only the
firm but also regional marketing. Both the activities contribute each other. The economical and social
processes are coming out of regional activities. Mutual marketing activity can solve many problems in
region and satisfy wider social needs of most inhabitants.
LITERATURE
[1]
BERNÁTOVÁ M. - VAŇOVÁ A.: Marketing pre samosprávy I.Marketing území. Banská Bystrica :UMB
v Banskej Bystrici.2000. ISBN 80-8055-337-8.
[2]
BERNÁTOVÁ M. - VAŇOVÁ A.: Marketing pre samosprávy II. Komunikácia s verejnosťou. Banská
Bystrica :Univerzita Mateja Bela v Banskej Bystrici. 1999. ISBN 80-8055-338-6.
[3]
COOPER J. - LANE P.: Marketingové plánování. Praktická príručka manažéra. Praha :
GradaPublishing. 1999. ISBN 80-7169-641-2.
[4]
KATUŠČAK D.: Ako písať vysokoškolské a kvalifikačné práce. Bratislava : Stimul, 1998. ISBN 8085697-82-3.
[5]
KOTLER,P. – ARMSTRONG, G.: Marketing. Bratislava : SPN , 1990. ISBN 80-08-02042-3.
[6]
KOTLER, P.: Marketing management. Praha : Victoria Publishing, 1992. ISDN 80-85605-08-2.
[7]
LUKÁŠ, M.: Městský informační management . Praha : GRADA Publishing. spol. s r. o., 2000. ISBN80-7169-554-8.
[8]
PAULIČKOVÁ, R.: Regionálny a mestský marketing. Bratislava: EUROUNION. 2005 ISBN 8088984-72-6.
[9]
FRANCEROVÁ,D. a kolektív:Územná samospráva v zrkadle zákonovIII.diel Bratislava : ZMOS,2001.s.5
[10] MAIER, G.- TODLING,F.: Regionálna a urbanistická ekonomika.Bratislava : Elita,1998.s.32
[11] VIESTOVÁ,K.: Regionálny marketing. In. Verejná správa,č.13, 1992
[12] MEYER, J.: Regionalmarketing. Grunlage,Konzepte,Anwendung.Munchen: 1999.Podľa PAULIČKOVÁ,
R.: Regionálny a mestský marketing. 2005, s.21
[13] KASPAR, C.: Základy cestovného ruchu. Banská Bystrica: Trian, 1995, s.10 ISBN 80-89054-34-6.
[14] JEDLIĆKA, M.: Propagačná komunikácia podniku. Trnava : Magna, 200.s.165. ISBN 80-85722-09-7.
[15] HASPRA,R.-MACH,F.: Sprievodca podnikateľa vo vidieckom turizme a agroturistike.Bratislava:RÉKA,
204
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
1993.s. 9 ISBN 80-78024-78-4.
PAYNE, A.: Marketing služieb.Praha : GradaPublishining, 1996. s.246 ISBN 80-7169-276-X.
www.euractiv.sk
www.vlada.gov.sk/decentralizacia/dokumenty/decentralizacia_bilancia.pdf
www.vlada.gov.sk/decentralizacia/dokumenty/reforma_sprava_final.pdf
www.tur.vlada.gov.sk/data/files/950.pdf
CONTACT
Doc. Ing. Jozef Strišš, CSc.
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
Czech Republic
[email protected]
Ing. Jaroslav Kavka
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
Czech Republic
[email protected]
205
206
COMPARISON OF ACCOUNTANCY IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC AND IN
SLOVAKIA AND INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARDS
Ondřej Šabata, Jaroslav Ďaďo
Abstract: In my work I compare the accounts of small and medium sized enterprises in the
Czech and Slovak Republic and the subsequent comparison of certain accounting transactions
of international accounting standards. In the practice I compare area of fixed assets, leases
and reserves in the Czech and Slovak Accounting and reporting under international
Accounting standards.
Key words: Accounting, law, book, management, accounting documents, business.
THE THEORETICAL BASIS
This article deals with accounting and general information about it. Definition of accounting can be
following: Accounting provides information that is important for management and decision in business
activities. It is a tool to monitor the actual state of assets, liabilities, capital, costs and revenues. It uses a set
of accounts which recordings are being made with double entries. Accounting is done to enable total
internal control body.
Accounting records are maintained over time, i.e. for a certain period of time. This period is called an
accounting period. Accounting is a comprehensive set of accounting records, such as accounting documents,
accounting records, books, etc. must be kept complete, transparent and correct manner. They are in it
truthfully recorded all activities of the business, which can be demonstrated in the prescribed manner.
Obligation to keep accounts is regulated by law.
COMPARISON OF SELECTED FIELDS OF ACCOUNTING IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC AND
SLOVAKIA
The concept of accounting in the Czech Republic in 2004 can only imagine bookkeeping balance method,
i.e. through so-called double registrations. The Slovak Republic is still used as a simple and double-entry
bookkeeping.
LEGISLATION OF ACCOUNTING IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC AND SLOVAKIA
This part is interested in the Czech accounting legislation - Act No. 563/1991 Coll. the accounting
regulations to the Act on accounting and Czech accounting standards from 2004. [1, p. 12]
The basic legislation governing the accounting for the Slovak Republic includes:

Act on accounting č.431/2002 Coll.

Measure of MF SR č.23054/2002-92, setting up the details of accounting procedures and
framework chart of accounts to business accounts in the double-entry bookkeeping. [2]
ACCOUNTING DOCUMENTS AND BOOKS
Accounting in the Czech Republic entities that maintain accounts in their entirety are required to account:
 In the accounting journals,
 In the General Ledger,
 In the analytical evidence books,
 or off balance sheet accounts in the books.
207
Simplification of accounting is permitted by law for those entities that are non-profit organizations or
entities with no obligation to statutory audit. [1, p. 16]
In Slovakia: accounting an entity is required to charge the double-entry bookkeeping, except where it may
lead a simple accounting:
 Entrepreneur, where he provides a special regulation (Trader).
 An individual who engaged in other self-employed, i.e. persons doing business under special rules
(auditors, tax advisors, notaries), persons doing business under the Copyright Act, persons having
rental income, etc.
 Civic associations, their branches with legal personality, the Slovak branch Matrix, an association
of legal persons, owners of apartments and commercial space, non-investment funds, non-profit
organization providing public utility services and run a business if the previous period of their
income reached € 200,000.
 Churches and religious institutions with legal personality, if they run business
 Community Land, if their income did not reach the previous year € 200,000. [3]
Entities that charges double-entry accounting are accounted for in these books:
 In the accounting diary, where the accounting entries made in time (chronological)
 In the general ledger, where the accounting entries made systematically. [4]
Entities that use simple accounting:
 A cash book
 A book of receivables.
 A book of liabilities. [4]
Czech republic
Designation of accounting documents
Content of the accounting document
Cash amounts
Datum of an issue an invoice
Date of the transaction, if not identical to the date
of issue
Signature of the person responsible for the current
case and the person responsible for posting
-
Slovak republic
Marking the accounting document number and the
word
Content of the accounting document
Cash amounts
Date of issue an invoice
Date of the transaction, if not identical to the date of
issue
Signature of the person responsible for the current
case and the person responsible for posting
The designation of accounts, on which the recorded
carrying case (assignment)
Tab. No. 1: Overview of accounting documents in the CR and SR - comparison
Source: [Own]
Czech republic
Journal
General Ledger
Analytical accounts
Book off balance sheet accounts
Slovak republic
Journal
General Ledger
-
Tab. No 2: List of accounting books in CR and SR
Source: [Own]
COMPARISON OF FINAL ACCOUNTS IN CR AND SR
The financial statements in CZ are formed sheet (balance), profit and loss (income) and the annex, which
contains additional information on accounts. Selected companies must also prepare a cash flow statement
and statement of changes in equity.
208
Auditing obligations under § 20 of the Act are:
 Companies and cooperatives (except for SA), which in the current period and the immediately
preceding accounting period exceeded or reached the following criteria:
 Total assets of more than 40 million CZK
 an annual net turnover of more than 80 million CZK
 Average number of employees over 50 [1, p. 19]
 Joint-stock companies for the current and previous financial year have already reached or exceeded
at least one of the three above-mentioned criteria,
 Foreign persons who are entrepreneurs and individuals who meet at least two of the three criteria.
[1, p.19]
If an entity has an obligation to verify the closure auditor must also prepare an annual report. [1, p. 19]
In § 21 there are ways to publish accounts. The obligation to disclose financial statements is to all entities
that are incorporated in Commercial register it in a form in which it was prepared. This obligation is
fulfilled according to the Law on Accounting the prescribed transmission of accounting records of the
Registry Court or the Securities Commission. Securities and Exchange Commission statements forwarded
to those entities which have a reporting obligation in relation to it under the Act on Capital Market. The
accounts are then published in the Collection of documents which is included in the Commercial Register.
[1, p. 19]
In § 22 and § 23 are given provisions that related to the preparation of consolidated financial statements in
accordance with Czech accounting legislation. [1, p. 19]
The final accounts in SK in the double-entry accounting contain:
 The balance sheet.
 Profit and Loss statement.
 The notation - contain additional information on the financial statements (in the Annex to the CR).
 Annual report - only the entity to which financial statements are audited. [4]
The obligation to draw the statement of cash flows and statement of changes in equity has only the selected
entity.
FINAL ACCOUNTS AND ITS COMPONENTS
International accounting standards include components of final accounts:
The final accounts in the simple bookkeeping contain:
 Statement of income and expenditure.
 Statement of assets and liabilities. [3]
Statutory audit to satisfy at least the following two criteria:
 The total amount of assets exceeded 1 million euro
 Net turnover exceeded € 2,000,000.
 Average number of employees over 30. [4]
In the Czech Republic there is an entity that charges double-entry bookkeeping to publish statements in the
Collection of Documents.
209
Obligation to build
Balance sheet in full range
Balance sheet in simplificante
range
Profit and loss statement in full
range
Profit and loss statement in
simplificante range
Annex
Czech republic
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Obligation to build
Balance sheet in full range
Balance
sheet
in
simplificante range
Profit and loss statement
in full range
Profit and loss statement
in simplificante range
Anexx
Slovak republic
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Tab. No. 3: Overview of financial statements in the CR and SR - comparison
Source: [Own]
COMPARISON OF SELECTED ACCOUNTING TRANSACTIONS
FIXED ASSETS
Tangible assets are the components of property, whose shelf life is longer than 1 year and the entry price of
property under the Law on Income Tax in the Czech Republic is higher than 40 000 CZK. [1, p. 63]
In the Slovak Republic's entry of fixed assets according to the law on income tax exceeding € 1,700. [4]
Among the long-term tangible includes:
 Land.
 Structures.
 Movable fixed assets.
 Perennial crops.
 Breeding and drought animals.
 Other tangible fixed assets.[1, p. 65]
As the intangible assets are considered components of assets whose useful life is longer than one year and
the entry price by the Law on Income Tax in the Czech Republic more than 60 000, - CZK. [1, p. 61]
In the Slovak Republic is market entry price of fixed intangible assets according to the law on income tax
determined by the amount 2 400, - Euro. [4]
Among the intangible assets include:
 Incorporation expenses.
 Research and development.
 Software.
 Valuable rights.
 Other property under a special regulation. [1, p. 61 - 62]
Principles for valuation and depreciation of tangible and intangible assets are set out in the Czech
accounting standards 013. This standard does not include a financial threshold for tangible fixed assets, the
amount depending on the entity.
In the Slovak Republic there are addresses the definition of tangible assets and the § 37 definition of
intangible assets § 38 č.23054/2002-92 accounting procedures. [4]
DEPRECIATION OF FIXED ASSETS
The value of fixed assets is not reflected in the cost of acquisition. The cost of its implementation in the
form of depreciation occurs. Depreciation is the wear rate expressed in the assets of the entity. Depreciation
of property tax is divided into (according to the income tax) and accounting (according to the accounts).
210
To apply to the cost of property under the Act on income tax, depreciation divided into:
 Straight line depreciation (linear)
 Accelerated depreciation (degressive)
In the Slovak Republic, the law allows the income tax as well as of 1.3.2009 called component depreciation
separate movable property included in the depreciation 1, 2, 3 One tangible assets are divided into different
components (parts), and any movable object being given to input a price higher than € 1,700. According to
§ 26 paragraph 2 of the Law on income tax, the individual components included in the depreciation of the
same group that is included tangible assets. Each detachable part is recorded separately.
Czech accounting legislation does not allow this component depreciation the property is always depreciated
as a whole.
LEASE OF FIXED ASSETS
Lease of fixed assets mean the abandonment of property for use as payment for the duration of the lease. [1,
p. 103]
Lease of long-term assets is following:
 Operating lease
 Financial lease
Operating lease
Operating lease is a form of tangible assets. Tenant under the lease agreement to take over the use of
property which is the end of the lease reverts back to the landlord. [1, p. 103]
Financial lease
Financial lease is a way to provide property for a fee to use when at the end of the lease property passes to
the lessee. [1, p. 105]
In accounting terms, the leased property to the tenant only kept off balance. Costs incurred by tenants are
dealt with in accordance with applicable regulations, particularly the Czech Accounting Standards Nr. 019.
This is an instalment of rent that can be charged only in the form of accrual. The current cost accounting
period may be claimed only that portion of the rent, which accounts for the current year. Transactions are
executed on the basis of invoices and payment schedules. In the event that the rent paid in advance, you can
use accruals 381st with this account you can distinguish the first instalment of rent increase.
Landlord is to end the lease of property owner. Lease by Landlord to determine, are recognized as revenue.
Slovak Republic
Accounting for finance leases are governed by § 30a accounting procedures, which apply the principle of
economic benefits embodied in the Act on Accounting. According to this principle accounts for the property
and depreciated it the entity that uses it and not the entity that has ownership of it.
When purchasing property on the lessee recognizes the asset account debited an amount equal to the
principal. The principal is the sum of the agreed payments, reduced interest. This amount accounted for the
account 474 - Commitments under the lease. Assets acquired under finance lease depreciated tenant in the
Slovak Republic pursuant to § 20 procedures of accounting. Unlike the Czech Republic, where costs are
charged to the lease payments, in the Slovak Republic in the costs charged to the depreciation of the leased
property.
A lessor is a lessee of property abandonment debit 374 - Receivables from lease and the benefit of the yield
account. Asset disposal are accounted for at the expense of the cost with an offsetting entry to the relevant
securities account.
211
INVENTORIES
The term inventories is defined in § 9 of the Decree and the Czech Accounting Standards č.015 Inventories. [1, p. 143]
Inventories are divided into three groups on the purchased inventories, inventories generated internally and
animals. Purchased inventories are further divided as material and goods.
The materials are separate movable with a life longer than 1 year are not included in the balance sheet. The
material also called:
 Raw materials.
 General substances.
 Operating substances
 Spare Parts
 Wrappings
 Experimental animals [1, p. 142]
The goods also called:
 Movable assets acquired, including animals for sale.
 Animals of the own breed.
 The products of the company´s own production.
 Real estate includes land, which was purchased for resale. [1, p. 142 - 143]
Inventory of the company´s own production are:
 Work-in-progress
 Semi-products of the company´s own production
 Finished products [1, p. 143]
CONCLUSION
The Czech and Slovak Republic have approximately the same accounting system. The biggest difference is
the abolition of single-entry bookkeeping and tax records replacement, which is no longer subject to the
Accounting Act. Accounting Plan entity Slovak Republic contains accounts of the framework chart of
accounts, which is essentially the same as in the Czech Republic. It contains synthetic accounts of assets,
liabilities and equity and it includes cost and income accounts, as well as in our off-balance sheet accounts
and sub. An entity shall apply to costs and revenues in the period to which they were incurred related.
Therefore, the Slovak system is accounting for accruals.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1]
KOLEKTIV AUTORŮ. Abeceda účetnictví pro podnikatele 2010. 8.vyd. Olomouc : Anag 2010.
438 p. ISBN 978-80-7263-598-6.
[2]
WWW. ZÁKON. SK. [online] 2011 [cit. 20. 3. 2011]. Available from www: http://www.zakon.sk
[3]
MSPONLINE. [online] 2010. [cit. 15. 2. 2011] Available from www: http://www.msponline.sk/
[4]
Účtovníctvo.sk 2010 [online]. 2010 [cit. 13. 1. 2011]. Available from www:
http://www.uctovnictvo.sk/
[5]
BOHUŠOVÁ H. Harmonizace účetnictví a aplikace IAS/IFRS v podmínkách
českých podniků.
Praha : Wolters Kluwer ČR, 2008. 306 p.
ISBN 978-80- 7357- 366-9.
[6]
CENIGOVÁ A. Podvojné účtovnictvo podnikatelov 2010. Bratislava : Ceniga 2010. 656 p. ISBN
978-80-969-9462-5.
[7]
IAS/IFRS
Standardy a interpretace [online]. [cit. 11. 3. 2011] Available from www:
http://ec.europa.eu/internal-market/accounting/ias/index_en.htm
[8]
KOLEKTIV AUTORU. Účetnictví 2010. Velká kniha příkladů.1.pub. Brno : Computer Press, 2010.
ISBN 978-80-251-2907-4
[9]
KOTHARI .J.; BARONE E. Financial accounting an international approach. Pearson. Education
2006. 409 p. ISBN 978-0-27369-319-2.
[10] KOVALÍKOVÁ H. Zákon o účetnictví: Jednoduchý průvodce v každodenní praxi. 1. pub. Olomouc:
Anag, 2010. 159 p. ISBN 978-80-726-3590-0.
[11] MÁZIKOVÁ K.; MATEÁŠOVÁ M. Účtovníctvo A - učebný text. Bratislava : Iura Edition, 2009.
212
[12]
[13]
198 p.. ISBN 978-80-807-8294-8
MRKOSOVÁ J. Účetnictví 2010. 1 pub. Brno : Computer Press, 2010. 304 p. ISBN 978-80-2512925-8
Zákon o účtovníctve + Opatrenia MF SR pre účtovné jednotky. 1 pub. Poradca 2010, 224 p. ISBN
977-1-356-1201-5.
CONTACT
Ing. Ondřej Šabata
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
[email protected]
Prof. Ing. Jaroslav Ďaďo, Ph.D.
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
[email protected]
213
214
NEW VIEWS ON MARKETING MIX
Jozef Strišš1, Anna Závodská2
1
Žilinská univerzita, Fakulta riadenia a informatiky
2
Abstract: This article is focused on today’s evaluation of classic marketing mix (4 Ps) and new
views of marketing experts on editing marketing mix (4 Cs or 4 Rs). In this article there are
confronted particular opinions of experts. The aim is to find appropriate way for expressing
marketing tools.
Key words: Marketing mix, customer orientation, marketing communication.
Nowadays from marketing point of view we need to look at company activities more complex. Hence the
previous model of marketing mix 4Ps is still extending, sometimes up to 12Ps. New components of
marketing mix are for example:
 Process (production and work procedures),
 People (human resources + customers),
 Physical evidence (appearance – building, uniforms),
 Position (market stance, competition),
 Partners (business partners),
 Physical environment.
These tools should help to realize company’s objectives. All components of marketing mix must customer
see as a homogenous unit. Most of the marketing experts asserted, that original conception of marketing mix
4Ps is not enough oriented on customers. Although it was still extending, most experts saw a restriction in
respecting terminology beginning with the letter P. Regarding previous critiques there was created new
conception where all essential and needed changes of marketing strategy were included. It is so-called 4Cs
1:
 Consumer,
 Cost,
 Competition,
 Channels.
Rich Shermann 6, one of the reputable world experts in e-Business, logistics, marketing and other similar
fields, identified 4Cs as following:
 Company ,
 Customer,
 Channel,
 Competitors.
Another possible interpretation of 4Cs is 7:
 Company,
 Context,
 Customers,
 Competitors,
or 8:
 Customer,
 Cost,
 Competition,
 Capability.
215
They all have in common that they try to have customer in the centre of their focus. There exists a lot of
other way of understanding 4Cs. Probably most common and best known is 2, 3, 4:
 Customer,
 Cost,
 Convenience,
 Communication.
Nowadays the most used is Kotler’s concept 4Ps from 19801. By substitution product for customer value,
prices for cost, place for convenience and promotion for communication, there can be developed more
useful marketing mix reflecting state and needs of 21st century. Customer orientation reflects in terminology
of 4Ps a 4Cs. More company oriented product, price, place and promotion compared to customer, cost,
convenience and communication which are perceived more from customer point of view. Following table
shows these differences.
Product
Customer
Price
Cost
Place
Convenience
Promotion
Communication
It starts with a question what our customers need, not what kind of
products company offers.
Company has to think about customer expenses from time, social and
impact-on-environment point of view as well as financial expenses.
Better to focus on ideas you want to transfer to your customer, what he
needs and where he want it rather than your traditional distribution
places.
Productively communicate with customers for best defining their needs,
not just propagate them company’s products.
Table.1.Transformation from 4Ps to 4Cs.
CUSTOMER
Situation in present requires focus on customers’ needs and interests. They change with time (product
lifecycle and age of customer), opportunities, benefits and fashion.
This perceiving reflects fact that customer do not buy simple product but his perception of product and
evaluation. He can evaluate a brand the same way.
COST
Cost does not need to mean just financial value, but it has to reflect product value.
Cost also means that we have to respect all forms of expenses which must our customer spend to buy a
product (time, energy, etc.).
CONVENIENCE
It is important to assure that customer will get product he wants as simple as possible. What company can
consider as good way does not need to be positive accepted by customer. People are generally lazy and
comfort will sell products better than anything else. We have to think again from customer point of view.
COMMUNICATION
There are addressed hundreds of advertising communicational messages to the customer every day.
Therefore we need to communicate with customer in understandable way to him. We need to deliver this
message to him besides to all other information. Company has to focus on benefits, not technical
parameters. And first of all we need to communicate specifically (do not offer diapers to couple without
kids, meat to vegetarians and so on). According to new approach to „marketing communication“ it has to be
mutual, integrated and interactive.The term communication is preferred considered to the term promotion
because communication expresses mutual process and allow customers to feed back. Every interaction with
customer even if it is face to face, telephonic or written, it is still communication and the way how it is
managed can propagate product and send signals about company that customer communicate with. Walter
1
Concept 4Ps is assigned to Kotler because it was him who the most endeavor to popularized it. But he is not its first author. First ho
mentioned about concept of 4Ps and marketing mix was Neil H. Borden at the end of forties (published in article The Concept of the
Marketing Mix in Harvard Business Review)
216
E. Vieira 5 in his book „Marketing is business“ is going further. Besides that the development of
marketing goes from 4Ps to 4Cs, he predicts his development to 4Rs:
 Relevance,
 Returns,
 Relationships,
 Response.
He is not the only person who is going this way. But as at the beginning of every theory, especially in not
exact sciences, there is a variety of ideas and opinions although there is some connection between them. He
is presenting other perception on his website SINOTRUST Marketing Research & Consulting Ltd. 9:
 Relationship,
 Retrenchment,
 Relevancy,
 Returns.
In the newest theory of 4Rs according to SINOTRUST [9] there is a relationship in the first place and its
name is derived from marketing communication element PR (Public Relations) from theory of 4Ps. There is
a relationship between companies and consumers supporting prolonging and sustaining relationship with
customers. In the second place there is a reducing of expenses which does not include just comfort by
getting a product and saving customer time, energy and opinions but it is focused on simplicity of using, etc.
In the third place there is a relevancy which means offering professional, unique and according-to-needs
products to customers. In the last place there are profits. Companies must to respect view of customers and
shareholders on product’s value as a sense of their marketing activities. We often meet with partial
understanding of marketing when people understand marketing as an aggressive sale politics. Fundamental
difference between sale and marketing conception is that if company uses sale conception, first it creates
product and then it tries to adapt it to customer requirements. Vice versa the goal of marketing oriented
company is not to sell what company produces, but to produce what company can sell. The key to achieve
this goal is to know customer needs and satisfy them. In this case company’s supply is derived from demand
on the market. Marketing helps entrepreneur find right conception of entrepreneurship that means to have
right product in the right place and the right price at the right time and based on this company should
achieve appropriate profit.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] SCHULTZ, D. E. Moderní reklama – umění zajmout. Praha : GRADA, 1995.
[2] http://www.lspr.cz/cz/index.php?show_page=text&section=7.3
[3] http://www.pr-school-london.com/relationofpr.htm
[4] http://www.palgrave.com/pdfs/0333948971.pdf
[5] http://www.blonnet.com/catalyst/2003/10/16/stories/2003101600090200.htm
[6] http://www.inboundlogistics.com/articles/features/0102_feature07.shtml
[7] http://alumni.ebsmba.com/alumni/pdf/Pullout%20IYB%20May%2001.pdf
or 4P's 4C's 4R's
[8] http://google.com  4Ps 4Cs 4Rs
[9] http://www.sinotrustmr.com.cn/chinese_ver/book/no3/mail_e.htm
ADDRESS:
doc. Ing. Jozef Strišš, CSc.
Osvobození 699
686 04 Kunovice
Ing. Anna Závodská
Žilinská univerzita
Fakulta riadenia a informatiky 8215/1
010 26 Žilina
217
218
PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS AND THEIR POSSIBLE USE IN CROSS1
BORDER COOPERATION
Alexander Turan
Ekonomická univerzita v Bratislave
Abstract: This paper scrutinizes the possibilities of the use of public-private partnerships in the
cross-border cooperation. It focuses on the main characteristics of public-private partnerships,
explains this form of cooperation of public and private sector, its uses and reasons of the
increase in use of PPPs. It focuses on the main factors which explain a rise in this type of
cooperation. We analyze the advantages and disadvantages of PPPs and propose possible uses
of this type of partnership in the cross-border cooperation among countries that would
improve the employment and overall performance in the regions near the border.
Key words: Public-private partnership, Private finance initiative, cross-border cooperation,
Value for Money, fiscal pressure, accounting standards
DEFINITIONS OF PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS
Public-private partnerships are long-term contracts between the private and public sector. These
partnerships arise for the purpose of design, construction (building), renovation, reconstruction, and
operation of infrastructure or providing services. The private partner finances the project with his means (or
he has to acquire the means from an investor if he is economically weak), whereby he acquires exclusive
right to operate the infrastructure or to provide services. The private partner should bear most of the risks
linked to the project and obtains fees or charges from the public partner who is obliged to provide (pay)
these fees depending upon the quality of provided service or constructed infrastructure. These fees are
usually obtained directly from the users of the infrastructure or service.
While public procurement where the state has to pay for the procurement and the overhead costs, in PPPs
usually the state begins to pay after the infrastructure is completed. This is one of the incentives that force
the private partner not to exceed the budget and prolong the designed construction period.2
European Commission defines PPPs as „a form of cooperation between the public authorities and economic
operators. The primary aims of this cooperation are to fund, construct, renovate or operate an infrastructure
or the provision of a service. PPPs are present in sectors such as transport, public health, education, national
security, waste management, and water and energy distribution.“3
Her Majesty’s Treasury of United Kingdom defines PPPs as „arrangements typified by joint working
between the public and private sector. In the broadest sense, PPPs can cover all types of collaboration across
the interface between the public and private sectors to deliver policies, services and infrastructure. Where
delivery of public services involves private sector investment in infrastructure, the most common form of
PPP is the Private Finance Initiative (PFI).“4 UK is the country of birth of PPPs and has been a pioneer of
this form of co-operation. HM Treasury states that by February 2010 there were 666 signed PPPs out of
which 585 were operational.5
THE REASONS OF PPPS EMERGE AND INCREASED USE
Public-private partnership has been going through a period of substantial rise in the last decade(s). This state
1
Článok je spracovaný v rámci projektu mladých č. 2316075 „Význam Ruska pre rast konkurencieschopnosti EÚ“
HOLUB, D. Verejno-súkromné partnerstvo, ako alternatívny spôsob financovania dopravnej infraštruktúry intermodálnej dopravy
v SR a jeho riziká. E 01/2 [online]. 2011, [cit. 2011-25-4]. Available on the Internet: <http://www.intermodal.sk/ppp-vintermodalnych-terminaloch-snm/604s>
3
Europa.eu, 2011. In Green Paper on public-private partnerships. [online]. 2011, [cit. 2011-30-4]. Available on the Internet:
<http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/internal_market/businesses/public_procurement/l22012_en.htm>
4
HM Treasury. 2011. In Public-private partnerships. [online]. 2011, [cit. 2011-28-4]. Available on the Internet: <http://www.hmtreasury.gov.uk/ppp_index.htm>
5
HM Treasury. 2011. In Statistics – Signed Projects List. [online]. 2011, [cit. 2011-28-4]. Available on the Internet: <
http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100407010852/http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/ppp_pfi_stats.htm>
2
219
has been caused by more factors out of which two main can be extracted - efficiency and fiscal pressures
exerted upon politicians.
Public-private partnerships or PPPs are clearly collaborations between the private and public partner, which
should bring together synergic effect that should be produced by both sides. The private partner has an
objective to maximize the profit, whereby he needs to cut the cost or minimize the costs or make his
contribution to the project as effective as possible. This feat can be performed presumably better by a
private company than by public sector, which is unfortunately notoriously known for ineffective spending
all around the world. So the main aim of the cooperation is to erase the disadvantages that would be on the
side of the public partner, as well as the private partner if working alone. This way both sides can exploit the
best of the cooperation and bring synergic effects. Provided, that on the market there is free competition,
prospective partner for the public sector will have to offer not only a suitable price for his participation on
the project, but also other conditions, especially quality, management and know-how to maximize the
chances that he will be chosen in a tender from all his competitors. Naturally, the public partner has to
ensure that the contract is complex, well written and conducted by professionals to provide for good
performance and adherence to the conditions by the private partner. Additionally, the risk linked to large
projects may be transferred to the private partner what makes the partnerships very attractive. Hereby we do
not want to claim that the private companies are always more effective than the state-owned companies. But
unlike the state companies, the private companies are unlikely to stay on the market for a longer period of
time when producing losses. That is why they are and have to be more effective that the state-owned
companies, but on the other hand it is questionable what a partnership between the public partner and the
private partner may bring. Negative effects could be decreased performance of the private partner or lower
quality because of the contract already signed and existing. This is the reason why each contract concerning
PPPs must be closely examined, well-planned, conducted and arranged by professional lawyers in
cooperation with project managers, state officials and other parties involved in the cooperation.
Nonetheless, the development of public spending in recent years has shown another (darker) side of PPPs.
As the governments are striving for ever more services towards the public on one hand, and on the other
they need to keep the public spending as low as possible. This development has just been a logical result of
unwise and unreasonable spending of past decades. While most of the governments have been arguing by
Keynesian theories they failed to grasp the meaning of them. Generally, the suggestion for governments to
spend more by J. M. Keynes6 was meant only for the periods of economic downturn for which is typical that
the demand of households diminishes, the companies decrease their production (since it cannot be placed on
the market) and are not willing to borrow more credit from banks (and the banks are not willing to lend
money since uncertainty and pessimistic moods rule the markets), this is reflected in layoffs and higher
unemployment, which decreases the demand of households even more. On the other hand, according to
Keynes, in the period of economic boom, it is necessary that the governments should create reserves for the
case of next economic crisis or downturn. In other words, the message for government was: tax when it will
do the least harm and spend when it will do the most good. It has been known for decades that the
governments only listened to one part of the theory and have been successful in deforming the theory into
ultimate spending theory presented to public as a normal practice performed endlessly around the world.
The result of such behavior came in the debt crisis that has been sweeping throughout the global economy.
There are few, if any countries in the world without a public debt. Some economies have grown upon
spending of foreign money. As a result there are PIIGS countries in EU, the problem of large deficit in the
USA, Japan and other countries and threats of defaults of the whole countries. This is the very incentive
why to use the PPPs. The fiscal argument is based on the fact that there are loopholes in accounting
standards which allow the governments to construct large infrastructural projects without the expenditures
being included in the budget deficit and afterwards in the public debt. The governments are either obliged or
it is in their interest to decrease public spending to meet political, legislated or treaty-mandated public
targets.7 As Friedrich August von Hayek mentioned in one of his books, one of the greatest problems of
democracy is that the representatives are elected for too short periods and that is in many cases the cause of
problems stemming from the wishes of politicians to remain on their position and secure it. It is one of the
reasons that politics fight for votes and often propose the most popular solutions, not the most needed or the
most efficient solutions.8
6
KEYNES, J. M. 2011. The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. Martino Fine Books. 2011. 416 pgs. ISBN 9781891396687
7
OECD. 2010. Dedicated Public-Private Partnership Units. 2010. 118 pgs. ISBN 978-9264006515
8
HAYEK, F. A. 1978. The Constitution of Liberty. University of Chicago Press. 1978. 580 pgs. ISBN 978-0226320847.
220
In EU e.g., Eurostat allows the countries not to include spending linked to PPPs into the accounting of a
country when two conditions are fulfilled9:
1. The private partner bears the construction risk (e.g. late delivery, low standards, additional costs,
technical deficiency) and
2. The private partner bears at least one of either availability (the ability to deliver agreed volume and
quality of service) or demand risk (covers the impact of the business cycle, market trends,
competition and technological progress on the continued need for the service10)
This way, the assets used are not classified as government assets. So the PPPs pose the risk of long-term
financing, i.e. in transfer of the financing to next generations while keeping the outcome or product of such
financing. There are no fiscal accounting and reporting standards for the PPPs. This fact allows the PPPs not
to be included in the state budget and thus to be included in the public debt. On the contrary, PPPs may be a
better and more efficient way how to reach desired results than public procurement depending on several
points11:
1. The projects must represent the value for money, i.e. the value and effects brought by the
investment is greater than in the case of conventional public procurement
2. The private sector has to be guided by an assessment of the long-term costs and benefits as well as
the availability of finance, taking into account the risks transferred to the private partner and
prudent fiscal treatment of risks remaining to the public sector
TYPES OF PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS
There are many publications dealing with public-private partnerships, but the definition of such partnerships
differs from author to author and from organization to organization. The above mentioned definition
represents a hybrid of more definitions with the views of the author. The authors’ opinions are also different
when describing what a PPP is and what already belongs to privatization or to public procurement. Below
we list the most common types of PPPs, but as we already mentioned most authors disagree on what
belongs to the list and what kind of partnership does not belong to the list. Furthermore Private-public
partnerships are known also as Private finance initiative, Privately financed projects etc.
Types of public-private partnerships:
BBO Buy build operate
BDO Build develop operate
BLOT Build lease operate transfer
BOO Build own operate
BOOT Build own operate transfer
BOT
Build operate transfer
BROT Build rent own transfer
BTL
Build transfer lease
BTO
Build transfer operate
DBFO Design build finance operate
DCMF Design construct manage finance
LDO Lease develop operate
O&M Operation and maintenance
OMM Operation maintenance and management
WAA Wrap around addition
DESIGN-BUILD-FINANCE AND OPERATE SCHEME
Design-build-finance and operate scheme is the most popular type of PPP. Unlike in the conventional public
procurement, in DBFO the private partner designs the infrastructure. Afterwards, the private partner builds
the infrastructure and finances it from his funds (or has to find another private partner who is willing to
provide the needed funds) and then operates the infrastructure. The government is often the only buyer of
services provided by such a project (e.g. in a case of a freely accessible road) and pays the fees to the
9
Eurostat. 2004. Treatment of Public-private partnerships. 2004. 4 pgs. [online]. 2011, [cit. 2011-27-4]. Available on the Internet:
<http://www.pppcentrum.cz/res/data/001/000230.pdf>
10
IMF. 2004. Public-private partnerships. 2004. 48
pgs. [online]. 2011, [cit. 2011-20-4]. Available on the Internet:
<http://www.imf.org/external/np/fad/2004/pifp/eng/031204.pdf>
11
OECD. 2010. Dedicated Public-Private Partnership Units. 2010. 118 pgs. ISBN 978-9264006515
221
provider (private partner). In other cases the private partner collects the fees directly from the users and pays
the government a share of profits. In some cases there is a contracted period after which the infrastructure is
transferred to the public partner but in DBFO it is not a rule, i.e. the infrastructure may remain in the hands
of the private partner. In cases where the contract counts with the expiry period, after the contracted period
expires, the infrastructure is transferred to the government usually for less than residual price. This is more
commonly in the case of the BOT (Build operate transfer) form of PPPs.
CZECH REPUBLIC AND SLOVAK REPUBLIC AND BODIES RESPONSIBLE FOR PPPS
In Czech Republic it is the Ministry of finance who is overlooking the PPPs. It has a secretariat that
coordinates the PPP centre and the Cabinet. The Cabinet gives approval for the project once for the
feasibility study and the other time for the PPP contract. The PPP Centre was established by government in
2004. The Centre’s functions are: establishing procedures and manuals for PPPs, providing technical
support to ministries, and local self-government authorities to prepare projects and serves as a knowledge
centre for project implementation.12 In Slovak republic the development has not gone so far as in Czech
Republic as it has not establish a Center for PPPs which would be agency directly subordinated to the
Ministry and would help with the whole agenda concerning PPPs. So the Ministry of Transport,
Construction and Regional Development of Slovak Republic is the sponsor of PPPs. Negative experiences
in Slovakia concerning the PPPs may have stemmed from corruption and resulted in termination of the First
PPP “package” to project, construct, finance, operate and maintain a highway from Dubná Skala to Svinia.13
ARGUMENTS IN FAVOR AND AGAINST THE PPPS
Pros:
 Value for Money (VfM) – the project of the same quality will be delivered with lower costs or it
will be delivered for the same costs but in superior quality14
 higher quality of the infrastructure or services – as a result of VfM and know-how in the private
sector
 mobilization of private capital – to bridge over the insufficiency of government funds
 faster realization – responsibility on the shoulders of the private partner creates the pressure to
deliver the infrastructure on time or ahead of the Schedule
 lowering the costs – private companies are forced by the market to generate profit and thus to
lower the overall costs. In average, the cost savings in PPPs reached 17% higher Value for Money
than conventional public procurement.15 Additionally the competition is the force that minimizes
the costs if the tender is well prepared.
 risk transfer – the risk will be transferred to the party which is able to manage this risk at the least
costs
 motivation to better results – it should be anchored in the contract that the private partner will not
get the fees or they will be diminished in case of a low quality or breaching the conditions
 transfer of know-how – from the private to public partner
 private sector management and skills
 possibility of co-financing from the EU funds
 other incomes of the private partner – who is able to generate additional income from the
infrastructure by e.g. leasing unused spaces in buildings
Cons:

higher capital costs – because of private borrowing, the additional cost of capital is approximately
1-2% higher than the cost of capital for a state16
12
PPP Centrum České republiky. 2011. In Government resolution No. 7, on PPP in the Czech Republic. [online]. 2011, [cit. 2011-154]. Available on the Internet: <http://www.pppcentrum.cz/index.php?lang=en&cmd=page&id=1194>
13
Ministerstvo dopravy, výstavby a regionálneho rozvoja SR. 2011. In Zánik koncesnej zmluvy na balík č. 1 PPP. [online]. 2011, [cit.
2011-19-4]. Available on the Internet: <http://www.telecom.gov.sk/index/index.php?ids=80631>
14
HERPEN, van G. 2002. In Public-private partnerships – the advantages and disadvantages examined. [online]. 2011, [cit. 2011-184]. Available on the Internet: <http://www.etcproceedings.org/paper/public-private-partnerships-the-advantages-and-disadvantagesexamined>
15
OSTŘÍŽEK, J. 2007. Public Private Partnership. Praha : C. H. Beck, 2007, 284 s., ISBN 978-80-7179-744-9
16
HERPEN, van G. 2002. In Public-private partnerships – the advantages and disadvantages examined. [online]. 2011, [cit. 2011-184]. Available on the Internet: <http://www.etcproceedings.org/paper/public-private-partnerships-the-advantages-and-disadvantagesexamined>
222






long-term character of projects – after the contract was signed and the project is under construction
the private partner may be relaxed about the Schedule and quality, because the competitive
pressure was erased after the partnership with the public sector was established
moral hazard – in the text above we already mentioned several times the fiscal factor influencing
the decisions of politicians who are tempted to transfer the payments for today’s products and
services to the future generations to ensure reelection
limited access to the property during the time of the contract – until (and if) the property is
transferred to the state. On the other hand the state does not have to provide the maintenance,
operation, financing etc.
limited responsibility of the private partner towards the public – the private partner may lack
responsibility towards the public which should be eliminated in the contract
lack of cooperation – possible problems in cooperation of the partners
loss of working places in public sector
POSSIBLE USE OF PPPS IN CROSS-BORDER COOPERATION
PPPs are mostly used to produce infrastructure which does not include only roads and highways and
bridges, but also telecommunication infrastructure, hospitals, penitentiaries (prisons), sewage and wastewater treatment facilities and infrastructure, water systems, schools, social houses, senior homes, etc.
PPPs therefore offer vast number of possibilities also in the cross-border cooperation. To enhance the
cooperation among the V4 countries plus Austria and Ukraine much can be done. By developing the
infrastructure, e.g. highways we could enhance the trade, tourism and mobility among the countries. PPPs
could be used for building hospitals in the regions by borders, especially in the case of Slovak and Czech
Republic, because of very similar language, medical education and common history of such facilities. In the
regions like: Trnavský, Trenčiansky, Žilinský regions in Slovakia and Moravskoslezský, Zlínský,
Jihomoravský regions in Czech Republic it would be very efficient to build hospitals for both countries near
the border with the help of PPPs. The concept is even easier when the EU cards of health insurance are now
available in all EU member countries, which enable the patients to be treated or operated in any EU country
without being obliged to pay the medical treatment. By this cooperation both countries could save on
hospitals and have more patients coming from both sides of the border. Also cheaper workforce from
Slovakia could be used more extensively in these hospitals.
Tourism could be supported also via infrastructure. PPPs may be used to improve the connection of bicycle
roads and tourist paths not only between CR and SR, but also between other countries. Using PPPs could
help to increase the quality of existing tourism infrastructure and to construct new infrastructure that would
eventually boost the tourism industry, employment in border areas and thus increase collected taxes for the
state budget.
The author can also imagine cooperation between the countries in penitentiaries, which are in some
countries (UK, USA), almost traditionally, built using PPPs. These penitentiaries would be used by both
countries.
The competition involved in tenders would be greater which would press the prices even lower than in
single-country competition and greater advantages may be brought by such a cooperation of countries in
different spheres by using PPPs in cross-border cooperation.
CONCLUSION
The public-private partnerships may be an efficient type of cooperation between the public and private
sector that could diminish or even erase the disadvantages of each partner under the condition of a well
written and secured contract between the parties. Synergic effects of such cooperation can be the source of
higher effectiveness and should bring increased Value for Money in comparison with the conventional
public procurement. The cross-border cooperation offers the possibilities how to boost the economy of the
neglected regions in the border areas that many times lack vacancies and need to develop the infrastructure.
The PPPs pose a possibility to improve many aspects of the cross-border cooperation of countries and may
result in thriving near-border regions and their economies.
LITERATURE AND SOURCES USED:
[1] HAYEK, F. A. 1978. The Constitution of Liberty. University of Chicago Press. 1978. 580 pgs. ISBN
978-0226320847
223
[2] HERPEN, van G. 2002. In Public-private partnerships – the advantages and disadvantages examined.
[online].
2011,
[cit.
2011-18-4]. Available
on
the
Internet:
<http://www.etcproceedings.org/paper/public-private-partnerships-the-advantages-and-disadvantagesexamined>
[3] HOLUB, D. Verejno-súkromné partnerstvo, ako alternatívny spôsob financovania dopravnej
infraštruktúry intermodálnej dopravy v SR a jeho riziká. E 01/2 [online]. 2011, [cit. 2011-254]. Available on the Internet: <http://www.intermodal.sk/ppp-v-intermodalnych-terminalochsnm/604s>
[4] KEYNES, J. M. 2011. The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. Martino Fine Books.
2011. 416 pgs. ISBN 978-1891396687
[5] OSTŘÍŽEK, J. 2007. Public Private Partnership. Praha : C. H. Beck, 2007, 284 s., ISBN 978-80-7179744-9
[6] Europa.eu, 2011. In Green Paper on public-private partnerships. [online]. 2011, [cit. 2011-304]. Available
on
the
Internet:
<http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/internal_market/businesses/public_procurement/l22012_en.ht
m>
[7] Eurostat. 2004. Treatment of Public-private partnerships. 2004. 4 pgs. [online]. 2011, [cit. 2011-274]. Available on the Internet: <http://www.pppcentrum.cz/res/data/001/000230.pdf>
[8] HM Treasury. 2011. In Public-private partnerships. [online]. 2011, [cit. 2011-28-4]. Available on the
Internet: <http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/ppp_index.htm>
[9] HM Treasury. 2011. In Statistics – Signed Projects List. [online]. 2011, [cit. 2011-28-4]. Available on
the
Internet:
<http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100407010852/http://www.hmtreasury.gov.uk/ppp_pfi_stats.htm>
[10] IMF. 2004. Public-private partnerships. 2004. 48 pgs. [online]. 2011, [cit. 2011-20-4]. Available on
the Internet: <http://www.imf.org/external/np/fad/2004/pifp/eng/031204.pdf>
[11] Ministerstvo dopravy, výstavby a regionálneho rozvoja SR. 2011. In Zánik koncesnej zmluvy na balík
č.
1
PPP.
[online].
2011,
[cit.
on
the
Internet:
<http://www.telecom.gov.sk/index/index.php?ids=80631>
[12] OECD. 2010. Dedicated Public-Private Partnership Units. 2010. 118 pgs. ISBN 978-9264006515
[13] PPP Centrum České republiky. 2011. In Government resolution No. 7, on PPP in the Czech Republic.
[online].
2011,
[cit.
on
the
Internet:
<http://www.pppcentrum.cz/index.php?lang=en&cmd=page&id=1194>
AUTHOR
Alexander Turan
Ekonomická univerzita v Bratislave
Obchodná fakulta
Katedra medzinárodného obchodu
Dolnozemská cesta 1
852 35 Bratislava 5
Tel. č.: 0904 398 198
224
JMENNÝ REJSTŘÍK
B
L
BANETSKAYA, H. ............................................... 95
BARAN, D. ............................................................ 19
BOTEK, Z. ............................................................. 25
BŘEZINA, M. ........................................................ 29
LEGIERSKA, Y. ................................................. 115
LOVICHOVÁ, M. ................................. 83, 103, 129
M
MAJERNÍK, M. ..................................... 83, 123, 129
MALACH, A. ...................................................... 135
MALACH, J. ........................................................ 135
MARČEK, D.......................................................... 75
MARČEK, M. ...................................................... 141
MATOUŠEK, P. .................................................. 149
MOTYKOVÁ, M. ................................................ 153
Č
ČECHÁK, V. ......................................................... 37
D
DLUGOŠ, I. ........................................................... 43
DOSTÁL, P............................................................ 49
DUBOVEC, J. ........................................................ 53
N
NOVOTNÝ, M. ................................................... 161
F
FALÁT, L. ............................................................. 75
O
OBDRŽÁLEK, L. ................................ 167, 173, 177
H
HABARTA, R...................................................... 167
HABÁNIK, J.......................................................... 59
HANZOVÁ, A. .................................................... 147
HLAČINA, T. ....................................................... 67
HLAVÁČKOVÁ, V....................................... 53, 167
HORVÁTH, M. ..................................................... 75
HRICIŠÁKOVÁ, D. .............................................. 89
HURBIŠ, F. .................................................... 95, 147
P
PRACHAŘ, J. ...................................................... 181
S
STANÍKOVÁ, Z. ................................................. 197
STRIŠŠ, J. .................................................... 201, 215
Š
CH
CHODASOVÁ, Z. ................................................. 99
ŠABATA, O. .................................................. 63, 185
ŠIMOROVÁ, L. ................................................... 189
J
T
JABLONICKÁ, J. .................................................. 89
JACKOVÁ, A. ....................................................... 99
JEVČÁKOVÁ, I. ................................... 89, 103, 161
TŘOS, K. ............................................................... 29
TURAN, A. .......................................................... 219
V
K
VACKOVÁ, D. ...................................................... 89
VRBA, S. ............................................................... 67
KAVKA, J................................ 59, 67, 173, 177, 201
KOZUBÍKOVÁ, Z............................... 107, 111, 197
KRATOCHVÍL, O. .......................................... 11, 49
KRATOCHVÍLOVÁ, M........................................ 25
Z
ZÁVODSKÁ, A. .................................................. 215
225
226
Název:
Sborník „Jak úspěšně podnikat v příhraničních regionech jihovýchodní Moravy“
VI. Mezinárodní konference
Autor:
Kolektiv autorů
Vydavatel, nositel autorských práv, vyrobil:
Osvobození 699, 686 04 Kunovice
Náklad: 200 ks
Počet stran: 226
Vydání: první
Rok vydání: 2008
ISBN 978-80-7314-238-4

sborník „jak úspěšně podnikat v příhraničních regionech

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