Landscape Studies Use of the concept of umbrella species in

Transkript

Journal of Landscape Studies 3 (2010), 13 – 27
Received: 26 January 2010; Accepted: 18 February 2010; Published online: 6 March 2010
Journal of
Landscape
Studies
Use of the concept of umbrella species in landscape ecology
for assessing the impact of investment projects implemented
in the landscape
Ivo Machar
Department of Biology, Faculty of Education, Palacky University Olomouc, Purkrabská 2, 771 40
Olomouc, Czech Republic
Abstract
This paper aims to show the practical application of conservation biology in landscape ecology, namely the use of the
concept of umbrella species. The application of the concept of umbrella species in environmental assessments of the
effects of investment projects on landscape biodiversity is shown, using a case study of the impact of a significant Central
European transportation construction project (the Danube–Oder–Elbe water canal) on umbrella bird species in the
floodplain landscape in the Czech Republic.
Key words: Umbrella species; Landscape ecology; Danube–Oder–Elbe water canal; Bird species; Floodplain.
1. Introduction
Conservation biology is a multidisciplinary
scientific field that originated as a result of the
biological diversity crisis (Soulé, 1985). The
central term used in conservation biology is
“biodiversity” (Gaston, 1996; Srivastava, 2002).
Biodiversity loss is thought to be caused mainly
(e.g. Hunter, Gibbs, 2007) by the following
phenomena: loss of habitats due to their
degradation and fragmentation, overpopulation,
introduced species, processes of secondary
extinction (extinction cascades) and climate
change. In the cultural landscape of the Czech
Republic, the loss of biodiversity has been caused
mainly by: the decay of traditional forms of
cultivation of the landscape as a result of changes
in the way of life of the rural population
(modernization), the fact that man is no longer a
continuous presence as cultivator of the landscape,
the decrease in ecological stability of the landscape
* Corresponding autor; E-mail: [email protected]
Available online at: www.centrumprokrajinu.cz/jls/
due to intensification of agriculture and forestry,
the spread of alien species, eutrophication of
habitats, fragmentation of the landscape with new
transportation
corridors,
and
creeping
suburbanization (Lipský, 1995; Sklenička, 2002) .
The complexity of the topic of biodiversity in the
cultural landscape has become evident, due to
phenomena such as “new wildernesses”.
Landscape ecology is a multidisciplinary
scientific field (Naveh, Liebermann, 1994), which
deals with biological diversity on the scale of
landscape ecosystems (Forman, 1995). Landscape
ecology includes a number of theories that are very
closely related to conservation biology (Farina,
2007). For example, landscape ecology requires the
application of knowledge of conservation biology
as part of the exploration of disturbance processes,
landscape perforation and fragmentation (island
isolation and metapopulation as a key to
13
I. Machar: Journal of Landscape Studies 3 (2010), 13 – 27
understanding the meaning of the term
“fragmentation”) and flows in landscape corridors,
e.g. biocorridor connectivity, the function of
stepping-stones, etc. (Leader-Williams, Dublin,
2000). In the Czech Republic, the application of
conservation biology in the field of landscape
ecology has been further developed mainly thanks
to the establishment of ecological networks (Buček
et al., 2008) and applied landscape-ecological
studies (Machar, 2008a).
Umbrella species are targeted for management
under the assumption that other sympatric species
will also be positively affected (Plesník, 2005). It is
important in landscape ecology that umbrella
species are used to undertake broad conservation
based around the habitat needs of a single species,
thus allowing whole ecosystems to be conserved
under the umbrella of one species (Hunter, Gibbs,
2007). Umbrella species that are specialists are also
used to afford protection for a particular type of
ecosystem (Lindenmayer, Burgman, 2005) and
planning reserve systems (Groom et al., 2006).
Umbrellas often have holes through which some
species will fall, and thus a comprehensive
approach to biodiversity conservation in landscape
will often require using a suite of umbrella species
(Roberge, Angelstam, 2004).
The application of the concept of umbrella
species in an environmental assessment of the
effects of investment projects on landscape
biodiversity is illustrated in this paper, using a case
study of the impact of a significant Central
European transportation construction project, the
Danube (Dunaj) – Oder (Odra) – Elbe (Labe) water
canal, on umbrella bird species in the floodplain
landscape in the Czech Republic.
2. Methods and Material
2.1 The DOL Water Canal project and its
Technical Parameters
The project for the construction of the Danube –
Oder – Elbe (DOL) water canal (Fig. 1) includes
the construction of a man-made canal of European
significance for the purposes of water
transportation (European Commission, 2003). The
extent of the DOL project implies that the impact
of the construction of the DOL canal on the
14
floodplain landscape along large rivers in Central
Europe will be considerable (Ungermann,
Zwiebová, 2002). The route of the DOL canal in
the Czech Republic has been integrated in several
currently applicable regional conceptual strategies
(the so-called Principles of Regional Development
Planning), and is included in the land-use plans of
many communities (Glacová, 2004). The route of
the DOL canal in the Czech Republic runs through
a wide river floodplain of 8 biogeographic regions
included in all 4 biogeographic sub-provinces of
the Czech Republic (Buček, 2003). The potential
effects of this project on the landscape of the Czech
Republic have been scientifically covered only in
the last two decades (Buček, Kříž, 1989; Collective
author, 1989; Collective author, 1990; Prax, 1990;
Vlček, 1992; Obrdlík, Machar, 2005).
For the purposes of this paper, the technical
parameters of the DOL canal as included in Kubec
(2002) have been taken into consideration: a manmade canal with a year-round guaranteed minimum
draft of 280 cm, fit for push boats with dimensions
of 185 x 11.4 m and large cargo ships with
dimensions of 110 x 11.4 m; the minimum lock
chamber width is to be 12.5 m. The route of the
DOL canal has been adopted from the so-called
General Layout of the DOL Canal (Hydroprojekt,
1968), modified in the individual regions of the
Czech Republic to meet the specifications of
applicable land-use plans. Based on these maps, the
DOL route has been digitized using the ARC GIS
8.2 program on a scale of 1:10 000.
2.2 Hydrological Influence on the Habitats of
Umbrella Bird Species in Bird Areas Resulting
from Potential Construction of the DOL Canal
The digitized route of the DOL canal has been
projected in the Basic Water Management Map of
the Czech Republic (Šindlar, 2005), specifying the
points and types of crossings of the route of the
DOL canal with watercourses in the Morava, Oder
and Elbe river basins on Czech territory (Table 1).
Watercourses that will be “cut off” by the DOL
canal will cease to exist after its construction. The
stretch of the basin that is drained by these “cut-off
watercourses” will be hydrologically influenced as
a result of the decline of such watercourses due to
the construction of the DOL canal. By means of
intersecting the area of the affected basins with the
inundation (flood) area adopted from the Basic
Type of crossing of
watercourse and DOL
canal
Type of influence
Actual length
of watercourse
(km)
Watercourses opening
into the DOL canal
Watercourse opening into the
canal
Watercourse stretches from the
point of opening into the DOL
canal up to the opening into
the watercourse of higher
order
Watercourse led under the Watercourse led into the
canal in the form of a
conduit under the canal
conduit
Watercourse stretches from the
conduit under the DOL canal
up to the opening into the
watercourse of higher order
3654.4
1385.6
Relative length Consequence
of watercourse of crossing of the
(%)
watercourse and the
DOL canal
71.5
Watercourse “terminated
in the canal”
26.7
Decayed stretch of
watercourse
79.4
1.5
16.2
0.3
Watercourse not
influenced by the canal
except for the point of
crossing
Watercourse not
influenced by the canal
except for the point of
crossing
Table 1. Types of influence of the DOL canal on watercourses in the basins of the Morava, Odra and Elbe rivers.
Water Management Map, we created a map of the
hydrologically influenced inundations (flood
areas), the water regime of which will be
significantly hydrologically influenced by the
construction of the DOL canal (Fig. 2). By
superimposing this map over the map layer of the
habitats and the map layer of the bird area
boundaries, the individual bird areas and included
habitats that will be significantly hydrologically
influenced by the DOL water canal (Table 2) have
been identified.
2.3 Selection of Umbrella Species
Assessment of the Impact on these Species
and
For the purposes of this paper, we have been
selected as umbrella species (Hora, 1998) the socalled “criteria bird species” for which the
European Union has reserved “bird areas” as part
of the Natura 2000 network. A list of 181 “criteria
bird species” is included under Annex I of Council
Directive 79/409/EEC on the conservation of wild
birds, the so-called “Bird Directive” (Roth, 2003).
This paper envisages 14 bird species as umbrella
species, nesting in the types of habitats that could
be hydrologically influenced by the potential
construction of the DOL canal on bird areas of
floodplains along large Czech rivers (Table 3).
Bird areas have been preserved for the purposes of
maintaining populations of “criteria” bird species
in their “favourable conservation state”. The state
of a species as regards its conservation is
considered “favourable” if the data on the
population dynamics of the species indicates that it
has been maintained for a long time as a viable
element of its natural habitat, that the natural area
of the species has not been limited, and probably
will not be limited in the foreseeable future (Roth,
2003). In its founding decree concerning each of
the bird areas, the government has always
stipulated the list of criteria bird species for which
the area has been reserved, and which form the socalled “subject of bird area conservation” (Doug,
2005). In order to provide for conservation of these
bird species, their habitat in the bird area is a
particular subject of legislative protection (Stejskal,
2006). Therefore, these bird species can be
considered “umbrella species” in “their” nesting
habitats in a particular bird area. The assessment of
the consequences and the level of significance of
the impact on umbrella bird species as part of this
paper have been introduced in the context of the
expected influence on the population of specific
species as regards a particular bird area, as well as
the entire Czech Republic. In keeping with the
principles of evaluating the impact of investment
projects on localities within the Natura 2000
network in EU countries (European Commission,
2004), a “significant” impact is defined as an
impact that affects more than 1% of the population
15
Figure 1. Connection of the Danube-Oder-Elbe waterway transport canal with the trans-European transport network.
Designation of routes E20 and E30 by the European Agreement on Main Inland Waterways of International Importance (AGN),
1996.
Figure 2. Degree of hydrological influence of basins by the DOL waterway transport canal (%).
16
of the species in a specific area (Table 4). The
integrity of the Natura 2000 network primarily
signifies the ecological function of the system in a
specific area, which in this case includes
maintenance of populations of umbrella bird
species in the Czech Republic (Stejskal, 2006).
Data concerning ecological requirements of
umbrella species as regards their habitats has been
adopted from Hudec, Šťastný (2005), data on the
number and degree of spreading of these species in
the Czech Republic from Hudec et al. (1995) and
Šťastný et al. (2006), and data on the abundance of
species in individual bird areas has been adopted
from papers by Hora et al. (2002) and Chytil
(2003) and subsequently verified according to
updated unpublished data obtained from the
monitoring of bird areas in the Czech Republic
conducted by the Czech Ornithological Association
(www.biomonitoring.cz). The terminology for the
names of habitats used in this article has been
adopted from Chytrý et al. (2001).
River basin
Bird area
Morava
Soutok - Tvrdonicko
Odra
3. Results
3.1 Bird areas affected by the construction of
the DOL canal in the Czech Republic
A total of five bird areas, the habitats of which will
be hydrologically affected by the construction of
the DOL canal, have been identified in the Czech
Republic. Three of the bird areas are situated in the
floodplain of the Morava River (Soutok –
Tvrdonicko, Bzenecká Doubrava – Strážnické
Pomoraví, Litovelské Pomoraví) and two in the
floodplain of the Oder River (Heřmanský stav –
Odra – Poolší and Poodří) – see also Table 2.
The Soutok – Tvrdonicko bird area includes the
territory of river floodplains surrounding the
junction of the Morava and Dyje rivers. The
significant habitat types include the so-called
continental inundated meadows, most of which
feature numerous solitary oaks (Vicherek et al.,
2003). Extensive revitalization of the water regime
Important bird nesting habitats hydrologically influenced
by the DOL
Hardwood forests of lowland rivers
Willow-poplar forests of lowland rivers
Lowland river
Continental inundated meadows
Bzenecká Doubrava – Hardwood forests of lowland rivers
Strážnické Pomoraví
Lowland river
Litovelské Pomoraví
Lowland river
Alluvial Alopecurus meadows
Heřmanský stav-Odra- Reed beds of eutrophic waters
Poolší
Tall-sedge beds
Lowland river
Willow cars
Poodří
Lowland river
Alluvial Alopecurus meadows
Table 2. Bird areas in the Czech Republic and its habitats hydrologically influenced by the DOL canal project.
17
in the entire area reduces the negative impact of
the absence of floods due to previous water
management regulations (Prax et al., 2000). The
Soutok – Tvrdonicko bird area is considered to be a
“hot spot” in the context of Czech biodiversity
(Chytil, Schlaghamerský, 2003), and is significant
as regards the 10 assessed umbrella bird species
(Table 3).
The Bzenecká Doubrava – Strážnické Pomoraví
bird area consists of two different types of
territory: dry pine woods on drift sand dunes and
the Morava River floodplains, which would be
affected by the potential construction of the DOL
canal. The area provides nesting habitats to 11
umbrella bird species (Table 3).
Umbrella species
Great Bittern
(Botaurus stellaris)
Little Bittern
(Ixobrychus minutus)
White Stork
(Ciconia ciconia)
European Honeybuzzard
(Pernis apivorus)
Black Kite
(Milvus migrans)
Red Kite
(Milvus milvus)
Western Marshharrier
(Circus aeruginosus)
Corncrake
(Crex crex)
Common Kingfisher
(Alcedo atthis)
Grey-faced
Woodpecker
(Picus canus)
Black Woodpecker
(Dryocopus martius)
Middle Spotted
Woodpecker
(Dendrocopos
medius)
White-spotted
Bluethroat
(Luscinia svecica
cyanecula)
Collared Flycatcher
(Ficedula albicollis)
Number of nesting bird species
Soutok Bzenecká
Litovelské
Tvrdonicko
Doubrava –
Pomoraví
Strážnické
Pomoraví
1-3
48-64
23-24
2
11-17
5-6
2
10-13
2-3
8-13
1-2
1
20-25
10-15
12-25
The Litovelské Pomoraví bird area comprises the
floodplain of the meandering Morava River, which
branches to form an anastomosing river system,
called an inland river delta (Machar, 2008b). The
bird area provides nesting habitats to 9 umbrella
bird species (Table 3).
The Heřmanský stav – Odra – Poolší bird area
consists of a system of highly diverse water and
wetland habitats, such as the watercourses of the
Oder and Olše rivers, dead channels and pools,
pond systems, flooded mining pools, waterlogged
meadows, sand pits and others (Rast et al. 2000).
The habitats in this bird area are inhabited by 9
umbrella bird species.
The Poodří bird area forms a narrow band of the
2-4
3-5
Total number of
nesting pairs in all
bird areas in the
Czech Republic
hydrologically
affected by the
DOL project
5-9
16
1-3
18-22
60 – 80
7
10-15
90-112
931 – 954
18-25
650 – 1000
12-16
40 -60
10-16
70 – 100
Heřmanský
Poodří
stav – Odra –
Poolší
30 – 40
12-19
30-35
72-94
1300 – 1700
14-23
8-12
34-60
1500 – 1700
20
8-10
20
16-35
15-25
79-110
500 – 900
20-35
5
3-6
9-13
10-20
47-79
3000 – 5000
35
10-15
10-20
1-3
56-73
4000 – 8000
500
60-80
100-130
5-10
665-720
3000 – 6000
16-22
400 – 600
3185-4210
35 000 – 70 000
16-22
1500-2000
300
1300-1800
15-20
Table 3. Umbrella bird species.
18
Total number
of nesting pairs
in the Czech
Republic
in period 20012003
70-90
regularly flooded floodplain of the Oder River
Basin. The floodplain landscape has the character
of a park, and its area is mainly covered with
alluvial meadows featuring various types of
wetlands (dead channels, river pools) and five pond
systems consisting of more than 50 ponds
(Neuschlová, 1999). This area provides nesting
habitats to 10 umbrella bird species (Table 3).
The assessment of the influence of the DOL
project on the individual umbrella bird species in
these bird areas takes place in the context of
potential effects on the integrity of the Natura 2000
system (Table 5).
3.2 Assessment of Investment Projects in the
Landscape Using Umbrella Species
Great Bittern (Botaurus stellaris): Specimens of
this species build nests only in two of the bird areas
in the Oder River Basin that could be affected by
the construction of the DOL canal (Table 3). The
construction of the DOL canal would negatively
affect 17-23 % of its overall population in the
Czech Republic.
Significance of the
impact on umbrella
species
Critical value
Insignificant impact
Less than 0.1% of the
population of the species
in the CR affected
0.1% – 0.9% of the
population of the species
in the CR affected
Rather insignificant
impact
Significant negative
impact
Very significant negative
impact
Little Bittern (Ixobrychus minutus): The
construction of the DOL canal would negatively
affect 28-30 % of its overall population in the
Czech Republic.
White Stork (Ciconia ciconia): Between 90 and
112 pairs built their nests in the bird areas affected
by the DOL project in the period of 2001-2003,
which represents approximately 10-12 % of the
overall population in the Czech Republic that
would be affected by the construction of the DOL
canal. The influence of the DOL canal on the
population of this species could be rather
significant, because the inundation area of the
floodplain landscape also includes food domains of
White Stork nesting outside the floodplain area.
European Honey-Buzzard (Pernis apivorus): The
DOL project affects 3 % of the population of this
species in the Czech Republic; its influence is
therefore considered “significantly negative”
(Table 5).
Black Kite (Milvus migrans): The construction
of the DOL canal would negatively affect 27-30 %
of its overall population in the Czech Republic.
Red Kite (Milvus milvus): The impact of the
Consequences for decision-making
Symbol of
on the possibility of implementing
critical value
the DOL project in the landscape for
the preservation of the Natura 2000
network in the Czech Republic
Location and implementation of the
investment project in the landscape is
viable
Slight disturbing impact on the
population of umbrella species and
their habitats; the investment project in
the landscape can be implemented
provided compensation measures are
taken.
0.1% - 9.9% of the
There is no possibility of approving
population of the species and implementing the investment
in the CR affected
project in the landscape, with the
exception of projects supported by
eminent public interest, which can be
implemented only on the condition that
compensation measures are taken.
10.0% and more of the
There is no possibility of approving
population of the species and implementing the investment
in the CR affected
project in the landscape; the project is a
threat to the Natura 2000 network
0
-1
-2
-3
Table 4. Values and Consequences of the Significance of the Impact on Umbrella Bird Species.
19
construction of the DOL canal on the population of
this species in the Czech Republic may be
considered significantly negative (Table 5).
Western Marsh-Harrier (Circus aeruginosus):
Non-forest habitats in bird areas which can be
hydrologically affected by the route of the DOL
canal are usually very convenient breeding
environments for this species, and its population
amounts to 6% of the overall population in the
Czech Republic. The influence of the DOL project
therefore falls within the category of a
“significantly negative influence”.
Corncrake (Crex crex): The DOL project affects
2-4% of the population of the species in the Czech
Republic, namely in the Soutok – Tvrdonicko
(continental inundated meadows), Heřmanský stav
– Odra – Poolší and Poodří (alluvial Alopecurus
meadows) bird areas. The influence of the DOL
project on this species therefore falls within the
category of a “significantly negative influence”.
Common Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis): The
Common Kingfisher requires a specific nesting
environment, namely perpendicular erosion walls
of watercourses. It is therefore considerably
disturbed by projects aimed at technical regulation
and channelling of natural river beds, such as the
DOL project. The construction of the DOL canal
would affect 12-16% of the population of this
species in Czech lowland river habitats.
Grey-Faced Woodpecker (Picus canus): This is a
year-round resident species in bird areas affected
by the DOL project, building nests in the hollows
of old trees in the habitat types of hardwood forests
of lowland rivers and willow-poplar forests of
lowland rivers. Though not numerous, the species
is spread almost throughout the territory of the
Czech Republic. Therefore, the DOL canal project
would impact only approximately 2% of the Czech
population of this species.
Black Woodpecker (Dryocopus martius):
Although the DOL canal project affects only the
populations of Black Woodpecker (Dryocopus
martius) in the habitat of hardwood forests of
lowland rivers, this impact has to be considered
significant, since the Black Woodpecker is a “key
species” in the forest habitat: this is the only
woodpecker species that makes hollows that can
also be used for nesting by other large forest bird
species (e.g. owls) that cannot make tree hollows
(Johnsson et al., 1993).
20
Middle Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos
medius): Since this species spreads mainly around
floodplain forests in the Czech Republic, it would
be significantly influenced by the DOL
construction project (estimated 12-22% of the
entire population in the Czech territory), the impact
of which is assessed as “very significantly
negative” (Table 5).
White-spotted Bluethroat (Luscinia svecica
cyanecula): This species comes from bird areas
affected by the DOL project, and it is known to be
breeding only in the area of the Heřmanský stav –
Odra – Olše River Basin, where its numbers
amount to 4% of the Czech population.
Collared Flycatcher (Ficedula albicollis): The
construction of the DOL canal in the floodplain
forests in all five bird areas (Table 3) would affect
6-9% of the population of this species in the Czech
Republic.
The summary of the assessment performed here
(Table 6) indicates that the significance of the
impact of the DOL project on all of the 14
umbrella bird species falls within the range of
“significant negative impact” (7 species) and “very
significant negative impact” (7 species). If the
negative influence of a certain investment project
on the species or localities included in the Natura
2000 network reaches the critical category marked
“significant”, the legislation on nature and
landscape conservation applicable in the Czech
Republic (Miko et al., 2005) renders
implementation of the project practically
impossible (Roth, 2007). The project, however,
might be viable provided it is supported by
exceptional public interest favouring the
implementation of such an investment project, but
only on condition that extensive compensation
measures are taken, including, for example, the
establishment of substitute habitats of an area and
of biological quality identical to the habitats
destroyed due to the investment project (Stejskal,
2006). Therefore, it is obvious that in this
particular case study (an assessment of the impact
of the DOL investment project on the landscape)
the 14 selected bird species serve as “umbrella
species”, creating a so-called “protective umbrella”
for their breeding habitats in the bird areas.
Umbrella bird species
Great Bittern
(Botaurus stellaris)
Little Bittern
(Ixobrychus minutus)
White Stork
(Ciconia ciconia)
Relative proportion of
the population of the
umbrella bird species
in the Czech Republic
affected by the DOL
project (%)
17-23
Significance of the
impact on the
umbrella species –
symbol of critical
value according to
Table 4
-3
28-30
-3
10-12
-3
3
-2
27-30
-3
14-16
-3
Western Marsh-Harrier
(Circus aeruginosus)
6
-2
Corncrake
(Crex crex)
Common Kingfisher
(Alcedo atthis)
Grey-faced Woodpecker
(Picus canus)
2-4
-2
12-16
-3
2
-2
1
-2
12-22
-3
4
-2
6-9
-2
European Honey-Buzzard
(Pernis apivorus)
Black Kite
(Milvus migrans)
Red Kite
(Milvus milvus)
Black Woodpecker
(Dryocopus martius)
Middle Spotted Woodpecker
(Dendrocopos medius)
White-Spotted Bluethroat
(Luscinia svecica
cyanecula)
Collared Flycatcher
(Ficedula albicollis)
Habitat potentially affected by
the DOL project, protected by
umbrella bird species
Reed beds of eutrophic waters,
tall-sedge beds
Reed beds of eutrophic waters
Hardwood forests of lowland
rivers, continental inundated
meadows
rivers
rivers
rivers,
willow-poplar forests of lowland
rivers
tall-sedge beds, alluvial
Alopecurus meadows
Continental inundated meadows,
alluvial Alopecurus meadows
Lowland river
Willow-poplar forests
of lowland rivers, hardwood
forests of lowland rivers
rivers
rivers, willow-poplar forests
of lowland rivers
willow cars
rivers, willow-poplar forests
of lowland rivers
Table 5. Assessment of the Impact of the DOL Project on Umbrella Bird Species as Regards the Integrity of the Natura 2000
Network in the Czech Republic.
Impact of the DOL project on umbrella bird
species
Insignificant impact
Rather insignificant impact
Significant negative impact
Very significant negative impact
Total number of assessed umbrella bird species
Number of umbrella bird
species
0
0
7
7
14
Table 6 Assessment Summary.
21
4. Discussion
Umbrella species (Lambeck, 1997) are species
whose habitat needs, e.g. large areas or multiple
habitat types, encompass the habitat requirements
of many other species (Noon, Dale, 2002). This
paper deals with one possible application of
conservation biology in landscape ecology:
utilization of the concept of umbrella species for
the purposes of assessing the impact of a large
investment project on landscape biodiversity, in the
context of the methodology used in an
environmental assessment of its impact on the
localities in the Natura 2000 network (Machar,
2007). The weakness of this methodology consists
in the fact that the assessment is based not only on
employing a large amount of objective data, but
also on the expert (i.e. subjective) opinion of the
author of the assessment (Svobodová, 2004), to the
same extent as in all EIA/SEA environmental
assessments implemented in Europe (Benson,
2003; Environmental Law Service, 2006). One
specific way to ensure the objectiveness of the
assessor is provided by means of so-called
authorized persons, and the process for evaluating
the documentation on the assessment of the impact
by another authorized person, who should be
independent from the author of the primary
documentation (Říha, 2004). Another way to
obtain an improved assessment of the
environmental impact on landscape biodiversity
can be achieved using mathematic fuzzy modelling
methods (Drozd et al., 2006).
Within the framework of conservation biology,
the concept of umbrella species falls under a wider
complex of so-called focal species (Lambeck,
1997). Using the example of the well-known Tiger
project in India, Primack (2004) illustrates that the
role of umbrella species can in certain cases be
performed
by
indicator
species.
Nature
conservation practice employs the concept of
umbrella species in order to determine the smallest
acceptable preserved areas for the purposes of
selecting localities that should be included in the
system of preserved areas or ecological networks,
or in order to specify the minimum requirements
for the composition, structure and processes in
ecosystems (Plesník, 2005). Interest in umbrella
species stems from the assumption that their
management will confer benefits on a range of
additional species (Bond, 1993; Launer, Murphy,
22
1994). Although there is considerable merit to the
argument that the needs of umbrella species
encompass the requirements of others, there are
still no widely accepted criteria for identifying such
species (Lambeck, Hobbs, 2002), and their use in
conservation and landscape planning is not
straightforward (Simberloff, 1998). Umbrella
species are typically relatively large animals, which
have special patterns of habitat use and make some
species good umbrellas (Walpole, LeaderWilliams, 2002). Umbrella species usually have
large home ranges. Thus by protecting enough
habitat for their populations, adequate habitat for
many other species will also be protected.
Umbrella species are often found in a wide variety
of ecosystems across a broad geographical range,
and can thereby provide an umbrella for a very
large set of species (Noss, 1990). Avise (1996)
suggests that the concept of umbrella species may
be modified in some cases to include
phylogeographically, as well as ecologically,
important species for which an area may be
managed. The umbrella species concept can be an
efficient first step toward protecting other species.
In addition, minimizing the number of species that
must be monitored once a protected area has been
created will reduce the time and money that must
be devoted to its maintenance (Berger, 1997). The
concept of umbrella species can be put to good use
in landscape ecology. For example, Vos et al.
(2002) combined the corridor requirements for
species that have roughly similar reactions to the
scale and configuration of the habitat pattern into
so-called ecoprofiles. Another approach is to
identify the most critical species per landscape
characteristic, e.g. area-limited and dispersallimited species (Lambeck, 1999). The integration
problem has been tackled in various ways,
including the introduction of umbrella species that
are expected to provide protection for other species
(Vos et al., 2007). Brooker (2002) applied the focal
species approach using bird assemblages in
fragmented landscapes of Western Australia in
order to create a strategy for vegetation restoration.
Lindenmayer et al. (2002) argue (in their critique)
that detailed population models supported by
extensive field data are very important in the
application of the focal species approach in
landscape restoration.
However, the concept of umbrella species can be
used in landscape-ecological analyses only on
condition of very good knowledge of the biology,
ecological requirements, distribution and number
of specimens of selected umbrella species. In the
conditions of the cultural landscape in the Czech
Republic, birds have been chosen to play the role
of umbrella species, since birds are one of few
taxonomic animal groups that meet these
conditions (Šťastný et al., 2003): there is current
data on the occurrence and distribution of
individual bird species (Vavřík, 2003), and there
are numerous works on bird biology and ecology in
the Czech Republic (Hudec et al., 1995), facts
concerning wintering populations (Bejček et al.,
1995; Musilová et al., 2003) and the outcomes of
mapping the nesting distribution of birds (Šťastný
et al., 2006). Current data on European bird species
is also provided on the basis of the results of the
Important European Bird Areas project (the socalled IBA) – see Heath, Evans (2002). The IBA
data also served as basic data for the formation of
bird areas in the Czech Republic (Málková, Lacina,
2001).
The Great Bittern (Botaurus stellaris) is a very
rare migrant bird species, nesting in widespreading reed beds alternating with areas of
shallow waters, the habitat of which has to provide
a sufficient amount of suitable food, mainly small
fish. The overall European population of this
species is considered to be receding (BirdLife
International, 2004), and the bird is included in the
category of “critically endangered species” on the
Red List of Bird Species of the Czech Republic
(Šťastný, Bejček, 2003). The Little Bittern
(Ixobrychus minutus) is a migrant bird species that
nests mainly in the most wide-spreading reed beds
along still waters. The Heřmanský stav – Odra –
Poolší bird area is currently probably the most
significant breeding site in the Czech Republic.
The overall European population of this species is
considered to be receding (BirdLife International,
2004), and the bird is included in the category of
“critically endangered species” on the Red List of
Bird Species of the Czech Republic (Šťastný,
Bejček, 2003). The White Stork (Ciconia ciconia)
is also a migrant bird species that nests in human
dwellings and in habitats outside human dwellings
(here mainly in high solitary trees in meadows).
The overall European population of this species is
considered to be reduced (BirdLife International,
2004), and the bird is included in the category of
“nearly endangered species” on the Red List of
Bejček, 2003). The European Honey-Buzzard
(Pernis apivorus) is a migrant bird species, a food
specialist (mainly wasps and wasp larvae dug out
of their ground nests), and prefers open forest
landscape as its breeding environment; in the bird
area affected by the route of the DOL canal,
specimens of this species build nests in the habitat
of hardwood forests of lowland rivers. The overall
European population of this species is considered
stable (BirdLife International, 2004),and the bird is
included in the “endangered” category on the Red
List of Bird Species of the Czech Republic
(Šťastný, Bejček, 2003). The Black Kite (Milvus
migrans) is considered as a migrant bird species in
Europe, although rarely wintering in the Czech
Republic, mainly in the Soutok – Tvrdonicko bird
area, which is also its most prominent breeding
area in the Czech Republic. Its preferred breeding
environment in this bird area is in old and loose
stands of hardwood floodplain forests in the
proximity of rivers (Horák, 2002). The overall
vulnerable (BirdLife International, 2004), and the
bird is included in the category of “critically
endangered species” on the Red List of Bird
Species of the Czech Republic (Šťastný, Bejček,
2003). The Red Kite (Milvus milvus) is a migrant
bird species which, like the related, abovementioned species (M. migrans), has been
wintering in the Czech Republic for several years,
namely in the Soutok – Tvrdonicko bird area (10 –
40 specimens). In addition, this area saw a new
phenomenon regarding the biology of this species
in recent years, i.e. numerous gatherings (max. up
to 132 specimens) during the autumn passage
(Hora et al., 2002). For nesting purposes, this
species seeks hardwood floodplain forests and
willow-poplar forests of lowland rivers. The
overall European population of this species is
considered
slightly
receding
(BirdLife
category of “critically endangered species” on the
Red List of Bird Species of the Czech Republic
(Šťastný, Bejček, 2003). The Western MarshHarrier (Circus aeruginosus) is a migrant bird
species that builds nests mainly in habitat types
such as reed beds near eutrophic waters, tall-sedge
beds and enclaves of minor wetlands in the middle
of alluvial Alopecurus meadows. The overall
23
secure and slightly increasing (BirdLife
category of “vulnerable species” on the Red List of
Bejček, 2003). The Corncrake (Crex crex) is a
migrant bird species that prefers to build nests
mainly in grasslands that are neither mown nor
grazed (or that are mown or grazed in late
summer). This is one of the two bird species
endangered on a worldwide scale (BirdLife
International, 2000) nesting regularly in the
territory of the Czech Republic. The overall
reduced (BirdLife International, 2004), and the bird
is included in the category of “vulnerable species”
on the Red List of Bird Species of the Czech
Republic (Šťastný, Bejček, 2003). The Common
Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis): throughout the year this
species is strictly bound to habitats of flowing and
still waters, and its presence requires a high degree
of water purity and food availability (mainly small
fish). The abundance of the population in the
Czech Republic varies considerably in individual
years, mainly depending on the current weather
conditions during winter (Čech, 2006). The overall
stable (BirdLife International, 2004), and the bird
is included in the category of “vulnerable species”
Republic (Šťastný, Bejček, 2003). The Grey-Faced
Woodpecker (Picus canus): the overall European
population of this species is considered stable but
receding (BirdLife International, 2004); the bird is
included in the category of “vulnerable species” on
the Red List of Bird Species of the Czech Republic
(Šťastný, Bejček, 2003). The Black Woodpecker
(Dryocopus martius) is a year-round resident and a
well-known bird species that seeks nesting habitats
in unbroken and large-area forests. The overall
secure and stable (BirdLife International, 2004),
and the bird is included in the “not highly affected”
category on the Red List of Bird Species of the
Czech Republic (Šťastný, Bejček, 2003). The
Middle Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos
medius) is a year-round resident bird species, very
typical for the habitat of floodplain forests. The
overall European population of this species is
considered stable (BirdLife International, 2004),
and the bird is included in the category of
“vulnerable species” on the Red List of Bird
24
2003). The White-spotted Bluethroat (Luscinia
svecica cyanecula) is a migrant bird species whose
numbers in the Czech Republic have shown a
steady, slight increase. The bird has been moving
into numerous new localities. The overall European
population of this species is considered secure
(BirdLife International, 2004), and the bird is
included in the category of “endangered species”
Republic (Šťastný, Bejček, 2003). The Collared
Flycatcher (Ficedula albicollis) is a migrant
species that nests abundantly in tree hollows (and
nesting boxes) in habitats of floodplain forests
throughout the Czech Republic, where it is one of
the typical forest interior bird species. The overall
slightly increasing (BirdLife International, 2004),
and the bird is included in the category of “nearly
endangered species” on the Red List of Bird
2003).
Wetlands is one of the habitat types with the
highest (and also the most vulnerable) biodiversity
of all ecosystems on our planet (Mitsch, Gosselink,
2000). All five bird areas on the route of the DOL
canal are among the Czech wetland areas with the
richest variety of species (Chytil et al., 1999). As
regards biodiversity in the Central European
landscape, the DOL water canal project concerns at
least
three
international
conventions
on
biodiversity: the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance Especially as Waterfowl
Habitat (Chytil, 2003), the Convention on the
Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild
Animals (Roth, Plesník, 2004) and the Convention
on Biological Diversity (Glowka, 1994). In this
context, and taking into account the condition and
development of the Czech landscape at the
beginning of the 21st century, the Danube – Oder –
Elbe water canal project can be declared
environmentally unacceptable (Buček, 2003).
However, it seems necessary to draw up conceptual
documentation dealing with the environmentallyoptimal and economically acceptable use of the
floodplain landscapes surrounding large Czech
rivers. A detailed landscape plan (Sklenička, 1999)
of floodplains around the Morava, Oder and Elbe
rivers could form the basis for gradual
rehabilitation of the landscape-ecological functions
of floodplains in the Czech Republic (Prach et al.
2003; Štěrba et al. 2008), and also the starting point
for an assessment of other plans related to the DOL
project.
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