Regional Development of Prague and Application of The 4
Transkript
Regional Development of Prague and Application of The 4
European EnvironmenL F.ur. F.nv. r8, 9(i-ro9 (zoo8) Published onlirre 9 January zoo8 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscrence.wiley.com) DOI: ro.rooz/eet.47o Regional Development of Pragu€, and Application of the Four-Capital Model to the lssue of Urban Sprawl Jiii Blaiek,'k Pavel Csank, Marie MaceSkovd, lvana S;ikorov:i and Pavla Zftalov| Faculty of Science, Charles lJniversity in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic ABSTRACT This paper is part of the Special lssue of European Environmenf devoted to the outputs of the EU SRDTOOLS project,' which has developed and applied a new model of regional sustainable development evaluation. The paper demonstrates how the SRDTOOLS methodology has been practically applied for the case of Prague, and the constraints to application ofthe methodologythat have arisen during its usage in real conditions. A significant part of the paper is devoted to exploring the regional strategic programming documents and the regional developmental objective review in terms of the four-capital model. Subsequently, the process of urban sprawl has been selected to test deeply the methodology of trade-offs, critical trends and thresholds. Copyright @ zoo8 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment. Received t5 Septermber zoo6; revised jo Moy zooT; accepted 6 September zooT Keywords: regional development, sustainability, evaluation, programming documents, 4-Capital model, trade-offs, problems solving Introduction HE CITY OF PRACUE WAS SELECTED FOR TESTINC THE SRDTOOLS METHODOLOCY WITHIN THE Czech Republic case study for several reasons. First, in the Czech Republic, self,governing regions were established only in fanuary zoor. Therefore, the Czech regions are still constrained by many very basic challenges and duties (BlaZek, zoo5). However, the city of Prague has been already functioning as a self-governing entity since the collapse ofcommunism. Second, the competences of regions are rather limited, particularly due to the fact that the system of public administration operated for a decade without any self-governing bodies on the level of regions. Consequently, municipalities have acquired significant competence (and remarkable financial resources), while regions remained rather weak. Therefore, the selection of the city of Prague helps to cope with both described problems, as the financial strength of Prague allows it to allocate significant resources for investment and development (the city of Prague is at the same time a self-governing region and municipality). Moreover, as the city ,YCorrespondence to: Jiif BlaZek, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic. E-mail: [email protected] "Methods and tools for evaluating the impact of cohesion policies on sustainable regional development' (SRDTOOLS), a Framework 6 project, DG Research Conuacl Number SCS8-CT-zoo4-5o2485; see http://www.srdtools.info/index.htm Copyright O 2oo8 lohn Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment Regional Development of Prague and lssue of Urban Sprawl 97 of Prague belongs to one of the most swiftly growing regions in Central Europe, it fbces various challenges regarding its development. The key developmental challenge selected for testing the SRD'|OOLS methodology is related to urban sprawl in Prague's hinterland. r.z million inhabitants; t43o/o of EUz5 per capita average of CDP in zoo4; unemploymenl rate 3-4%". The dominant sector of the city is the service sector, which accounts for 8o%o of CDP and 75%o of employment in Prague. The region is highly attractive for foreign investors (e.g. DHL, Accenture, Siemens). Prague has a highly skilled workforce. The share of the total population holding a university degree is almost 2o7o (twice the national average). In Prague, there are about 8oooo university students, ofwhom almost toooo are studying for a PhD degree and about 55oo are members of teaching staff. In Prague, there are also 4o institutes ofthe Academy ofSciences ofthe Czech Republic and 5o other research institutes. Consequently, about a halfofthe scientific and research potential ofthe Czech Republic is concentrated in Prague. According to the European Cities Monitor, a survey of business attractiveness in Europe's top 3o cities since the t99os, the city ofPrague has risen from zoth place to r3th-r4th place. The electorate of the city of Prague with minor fluctuations exhibits a clear preference for the right wing Civic Democratic Party in both national and local elections. Using the four criteria outlined by P. Larddo (zoo5) (institutional, economic, regional knowledge base and connectivity), it seems that Prague's main weakness is the lack of connectivity among relevant actors. Main developmental challenges are management of transport (public but also completion of outer and city ring roads, extension of the airport and building the link to the city centre), waste-water management, flood prevention, fight against crime, prevention of dilapidation of huge housing estates built under socialism from low-quality prefabricated materials, development of a poly-centric city and strengthening of the competitive position of Prague in the Central European context. Box r. Profile ofthe city of Prague Source: adapted from Bohemian Regional Innovation Strategy, Strategic Plan and Czech Statistical Office. Review of Regional Development Obiectives Generally, it can be stated that there is only a limited tradition in eflective usage of strategic/programnring documents in the Czech Republic (BlaZek and Voz6b, zoo4). Especially on the regional and local levels, sfiategic documents are often considered to be a mere exercise without any practical relevance. However, particularly due to European Union pressure, national and to some extent regional authori ties have bien required to attempt to practice using strategic/programming documents. Even if some has been made, learning how to use those documents properly will take more time. progress In Prague, there are four significant programming documents addressing socio-economic developrnent - the Strategic Plan for Prague, SPD z (Single Programming Document,' focused on revitalization and business environment), SPD 3 (focused on human resources) and the Bohemian Regional Innovation Strategy (BRIS). From the content point of view, the Strategic Plan has the broadest focus, covering all spheres in the sense of the four-capital model (although in different detail). Moreover, it has been declared that the Strategic Plan represents the reference basis for the other three programming d6cuments in terms of developmental goals. However, such declarations should be viewed as formal, and therefore the evaluation of the regional development goals of all programming documents has been ,The Single programming Docunent represents one form of strategic document of which elaboration was a pre-condition fbr provision of the EU support via Structural Funds within the programming period zooo-zoo6 Copyright @ zoo8 iohn Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment Eur. Env. r8, 96- ro9 (zoo8) DOI: to.rooz/eet l. 98 Strategic plan fcrr Prague Integration of Prague into the European structures Reinforce Prague's function as a centre of innovation and highly qualified labour improvement in housing market - improvement of housing availability Development of secure and sustainable transport system and increase ofits accessibility Economical and ecological treatment of energy, water and other resources Increase in the quality of public management Decentralization of Prague's spatial structure SPD z SPD Bla2ek et al. B 3 RIS , x Set up optimal conditions for doing business Creation of flexible labour market Integration of socially disadvantaged groups of peoPre t. Consistency of explicitly defined strategic objectives among analysed documents Source: Elaborated on the basis ofStrategic Plan for Prague, SPD z, SPD 3, BRIS. Table conducted. While the BRIS deals with a specific objective set out in the Strategic Plan, on the other hand the potential focus of SPD 2 and SPD 3 are to a large extent defined irr the corresponding Commission regulation $25o1ry99). Consequently, apart from the Strategic Plan, the programming documents are targeted only on specific pillars in terms of the four-capital methodology. Table r illustrates the consistency at the level of explicitly defined strategic objectives in individual programming documents. As already mentioned, the Strategic Plan articulates the most comprehensive (in terms of the number and range of themes) strategy, having seven strategic objectives. Nevertheless, defined strategic goals do not cover the sphere of social capital, which is encompassed within SPD 3. The thematic differences do not represent any competitive (alternative) development strategy. SPD 3 represents rather the extension of the strategy into the fields that were omitted from the Strategic Plan. A high level of consistency was found between SPD z and the Strategic Plan. Even if one additional objective was detected, this difference was not confirmed at the level of measures proposed. To sum up, although there are four programming documents dealing with regional development in Prague, these documents follow a single regional development strategy. The strategy is set out in the Strategic Plan for Prague and the other analysed documents are consistent with it. The consistency was found out at the level of sfiategic objectives as well as proposed measures. The evaluation of the strategy from a sustainable development point of view is inevitably connected with the question of the internal coherence of the strategy. As the key issues of sustainability emerge from the conflicts between different spheres (capitals) of reality, a strategy cannot be'sustainable' if it is not internally coherent (in the sense of interconnections between different fields of development). Due to this fact the evaluation was focused on the following questions. r. Does the strategy recognize and seek to reconcile constraints on parricular forms of development? In other words, does the sffategy pay special attention to those aspects of development involving sphere(s) with a (potential) negative effect on the other sphere(s)l z. Does the strategy contain any specific measures targeted on the handling of the inevitable conflicts stemrning from the realities of complex development processes? Copyright @ zoo8 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment Eur- Env. r8,95-ro9 (zoo8) DOI: ro.rooz/eet Regional Development of Prague and lssue of Urban Sprawl 99 3. To what extent are the goals relating to the different spheres of the fbrir-capital model integrated or separatedl Only two out of seven strategic objectives are explicitly related to the environmental dimension of sustainable development (see Table r).r The most obvious sustainability conflict, i.e. conflict between economic development and the need for environmental sustainability, is clearly reflected in the strategy. However, this does not mean at all that the sftategy is sustainability oriented. There are a number of unresolved conflicts between development and sustainabiiity objectives. In fact, a reference to environmental sustainability is currently used as a 'trendy supplement' to every socio-economic strategy in the Czech Republic. The regional strategic objectives are further specified througtr priorities. In the context of the priority was evaluated on the basis of explicitly defined objectives and intended impacts, and classified in accordance with the four-capital model (see Table z). However, the evaluation of such relations is inevitably to a certain extent subjective. Again, the crucial aim of the strategy embodies in the sphere of economic growth (the majoriy - 23 of 3o - circumscribed objectives are directly linked to man-made capital; the majority of other goals is indirectly focused on the SRDTOOL.S project, each economic development). Moreover, the proposed measures involving natural, human and social capitals are focused on either the creation of favourable conditions for economic growth or mitigation of the most adverse impacts of economic development. The proclaimed strategic goals are not targeted on the enhancement of the other capitals' quality. Eventually, even if the conflict between man-made and natural capitals is recognized within the strategy, implicitly economic growth is preferred to environmental sustainability. Due to the fact that the shategy reflects only conflict between man-made and nahrral capital, only limited number of specific measures could be incorporated within the strategy. Indeed, except for one priority devoted to the natural capital, the others are primarily targeted to mitigate negative impacts of increasing man-made capital (or more precisely enhancement of economic development). Therefore, it can be stated that there are no specific measures primarily designed to tackle the conflicts stemming from the need for complex socio-economic development. However, it is obvious that some measures designed to increase certain capitals can positively influence adverse impacts of the conflicts among different capitals. Submission of the objectives in the spheres of naturai, human and social capital to the need of economic growth is apparent from the following observations. First, from Table z it can be seen that zr out of 3o priorities have synergies involving more than one capital. In other words, zr priorities set out in the strategic programming documents for Prague are assigned to enhance the quality of two or more capitals 'at once'. Subsequently, an internal coherence ofstrategy for Prague can be assessed by analysing types of inter-capital synergy (see Table 3). Table J expresses the number of priorities according to the type of inter-capital synergy; for instance, there are nine priorities oriented on increasing both man-made and human capitals (e.9. the priority 'improvement of infrastructure and conditions for pedestrians and cycling'or'enhancement of economic competitiveness through activation of innovation potential'- see Table z). However, apart from a single case of synergy between human and social capital, all other identified synergies involve man-made capital (see Table 3). This fact (together with the highest number of priorities focused on this type of capital) underpins the claim that economic development (i.e. increase in man-made capital) represents the core of Prague's development strategy. rThese are development ofa secure and ecological transport system and increase in its accessibility, and economical and ecological featment ofenergy, water and other resources. The sustainability dimension can be found also in the strategic objective ofdecentralization ofPrague's sDatial stmcture. Copyright @ :-oo8 f ohn Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment Eur. Env. tE, 96-ro9 (zoo8) DOI: ro.rooz/eet 100 l. Priority in strategic plan for Prague . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Man-made capital Europe # # Enhance economic competitiveness through activation of innovation potential Prague as respected capital and helpful neighbour Management of business activities in the capacity context (esp. tourism) Management and reduction of motoring + Enhance Prague's status as a significant centre in Enhance the attractiveness of public transPort Development of key transport infrastructure lmorove infrastructure and conditions for pedestrians and cycling Renovation offresh water infrastructure + Human capital Social capital # # # T # t + Ensure ecological waste-water management Enhance the efficiency of energy consumption Ensure European standard of ICT infrastructure Natural capital Blaiek et al. # # # + + + # lmorove all elements of natural environment Enhance the sustainability of waste management # + + + lmprove the harmony between urban and natural environ ments Maintain the historic and cultural heritage Support the function of Prague as a centre of culture and humanity + # . Accelerate housing construction and maintain existing housing estates . Support the image of Prague as a secure metropolis for its inhabitants and visitors . Activate public commitment and enhance . . . . patriotism # Create conditions for manifold activities + . . +# # # T Create multi-central city Maintain the architectonic capital of Prague Enhance the position of Prague in the state system # of public administration + # # Enhance the efficiency of public administration Intensifr ICT use in public administration Additional priorities from the other programming documents: . . . . Brownfield regeneration (SPD z) Active labour market policy (SPD 3) Integration of socially disadvantaged groups of people Support for life-long learning z. Coherence of the strategy according to the four capitals Source: Elaborated on the basis ofStrategic Plan for Prague, SPD z, SPD 3, BRIS. ++ means the focus of oblectives of given priority; + relates to concrete activities or secondary obiectives Table Copyright @ zoo8 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment Eur. Env. t8, 95-to9 (zoo8) DOI: ro.1oo2/eet Regional Development of Prague and lssue of Urban Sprawl Type of inter-capital synergy Man-made + natural capital Man-made + human capital Man-made + social capital Natural + human capital Natural + social capital Human + social capital Total Table j. Sou rce: N umber of priorities 9 7 o I 2l Internal coherence of strategy for Prague 'Table z. Regional Trends and Trade-Offs and Selected policy Choices From a methodological point of view it is desirable to distinguish between trade-offs on the policy/programming level and on the project level. At the same time, when assessing the trade-offs among the four capitals, it is necessary to distinguish the character of trade-offs on different hierarchical levels. The following five issues, which Prague is currently facing, can serve as good examples involving clear trade-offs among capitals: (r) urban sprawl (suburbanization) (z) brownfield versus greenfield (3) housing estates versus social polarizaion (4) development of transport infrastructure versus environment (5) extension of Prague airport. Four out of five listed issues concern the conflict between man-made and natural capital. As already sfiessed, this conflict is explicitly incorporated within the developmental strategy for Prague, and represents the most significant trade-off in a broad sense in the four-capital model. Only the third issue serves as an example of conflict between man-made and social capital. Nevertheless, it should be pointed out that all selected challenges (trade-offs) are closely interconnected. Initially, it was decided to explore the nature of the trade-offs more deeply with the four-capital model (Dahlstrom and Ekins, 2oo5) by focusing on suburbanization and the extension of Prague airport. However, due to the fact that the Prague airport extension is more in the nature of a project than a programme and the whole process is strictly regulated by law, eventually it was decided that the issue of suburbanization gave more scope for the analysis. Nonetheless, the initial assessment of the Prague airport suggested that the four-capital model and the methodological principles of trade-offs and (critical) thresholds could be usefully applied even at the level of projects, in particular for large ones concerning a conflict between man-made and natural capital, but also for others). Obviously projects of such a kind are evaluated within the EIA procedure; nevertheless, it might be beneficial to incorporate the method of trade-offs and thresholds within the EIA methodology. The Process of Suburbanization in the Prague Hinterland In Prague's hinterland (as generally in the whole Czech Republic), urban sprawl has not been regarded by politicians as a serious problem yet, despite the fact that migration of better off inhabitants out of the city is already a well documented phenomenon (see Figure r). Consequently, the process of suburbanization has not been explicitly addressed by any public urban policy, and therefore it has not been purposely regulated in order to follow principles of sustainable Copyright @ z-oo8 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment Eur. Env. tE, 96-to9 (zoo8) DOI: ro.rooz/eet l. 102 Blailek et al. Population growth index 1391.2001 t1991*100) 59-sg,s 100 - 10s, g 110 - 129" g 130 - 159, 160 - 3S? I r\ tl P'l t{intrrland of Pragr* Figurer. population change in city parts and municipalities of Prague Metropolitan Area in t99t-zoot Source: Slikora, 1., Ouiedniiek, M. (zoo7) policies development (Sykora, 2oo5). Nevertheless, some measures of the national and regional sectoral the process (e.g. environmental policy, housing policy, transport policy and regional policy) influence of suburbanization signiicantly. The most important and the most powerful public pohcy related to the process of suburblnization is spatial planning, which can influence new construction by legislative tooli, but this policy operates mainly as a restrictive and streamlining tool. no coordinated public measures to treat the effects of the suburbanization In other *oidr, th"r" "r" process (Sykora, zoo1,\), so there is eflectively in place a'hands-off policy'. This status of public interu.rtiorrr'r.latedto the process of suburbanization is a consequence first of the fact that suburbanrzation is a very new phenomenon in the Czech Republic, accelerating since the second half of the r99os politicians yet. (Sykora, 1999; Sykora and Ouiednidek, zooT), hence it is not considered a problem by !..o.ra, d;A;gth" ,99or the prevailing approach to urban development can be characterized as laissez that faire, inspired"by ideai of neol-iberal economlcs (Sykora, zoo6). Nevertheless, it can be presumed in the near future it will be inevitable to pay more attention to making metropolitan development more of what sustainable. From this perspective, following interrelated policy choices can serve as examples the illustrates Table 4 qr"r,io"r within public interventions policy-makers might be facing. Importantly, emerged' iey identified trade-offs in connection with suburbanizition from which policy choices have At the beginning, the fundamental policy choice emerging from the identification of trade-offs undertaken in between the lifferent capitals lies in a question about whether a policy action should be or of suburbanization, impacts order to influence future development with respect to negative/positive should be advocated. Subsequently, when deciding on a Proper public whether a laissez-fair" "ppro".ti development, it development programme in order to intervene in favour of a selected way of future would be their needs io b" ,"solied whether restrictive or supportive measures will be engaged, or what suitable combination. intervenSimilarly, in the Czech case of suburbanization, first we may consider a choice that no public public Alternatively, tion addressing the process of suburbanization in Prague hinterland is launched. interventi6n is expeited and three options for public interferences were identified. Copyright @ zr:ott John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environmenl Eur. Env. r8,96-ro9 (zoo8) DOI: to.tooz/eet R."g,"glP:""1:erglgl Prague and tssue of Urban Sprawl Trade-offs/capital Man-made capital r03 Natural capital Social capital l-1uman capital Urban sprawl versus high number of non-revitatized brownfields* Social relations/polarization between denizens and new dwellers Social situation at socialist housing estates after inhabitants with higher social status have moved out Increased intensity of usage of road system due to increasing car usage versus environmental quality 4. The key trade'offs in Prague hinterland in connection with the suburbanization Drocess Dark grey - increase in capital stock; light grey - decrease in capital stock. *ln this case, as far as man-made capital is concerned there may be observed a decreasing tendency in its quality (in connection to e.g. further deterioration of brownfields in the inner city, as a result of uncontrolled urban sprawl) but also a increasing tendency (e.9. construction ofnew houses in suburban areas and further infrastructure). Table -i l-- i z. Urban sprawl in hinterland of Prague - cluster of new houses built in greenfield area without any social amenities or retail units (cluster near village of Zvole, South of Prague). Author: J. Blaiek. Figure Then, the first policy choice consists in the queslion of whether resfiictive measures within spatial planning should be applied in order to prevent using greenfield sites for new commercial or even residentral development (see Figure 2). In addition, regulatory measures for new construction of both commercial and residential housing should be engaged in the framework of physical plans and particularly strictly followed. The second policy option opens the question about whether stimulative instruments (particularly financial incentives) should be employed to support revitalization of disused areas (especially brownfield Copyright @ zoo8 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP f nvironment Eur. Env. tE, 96 ro9 (zoo8) DOI: ro"rooz/eet l04 l. Blaiek et al. sites) in the inner city. Successful revitalization of such areas would have two principal elfbcts - an obvious impact on the physical environment of the city, and creafion of suitable =pr." fo. both large shopping malls extensively constructed at the edge of the city (which is consequently changing the spatiil behaviour of people) and housing units. The third policy choice relates to the issues of social relationships, social polarization and social inequalities arising from the physical revitalization of socialist housing estates. In Prague, a significant proportion of inhabitants live in these dwellings, which need to be extensively renovated to meelmodern standards (see Figures 3 and 4l.Instead of themselves investing in the reconstruction of flats and houses in such estates, middle class inhabitants prefer to move out into suburban areas and acquire their own family houses. This trend influences social relationships both in large socialist housing estate areas (ghettoization) and in suburban areas, resulting in the spatial segregation of different social groups. One option to avoid serious social problems would be more active public policy towards revitalization in order to encourage people not to leave these dwellings. Naturally, it is a policy-making question whether public policy should intensively support private housing and increase the 'private' man-made capital stock. It can be presumed that a more active policy in favour of revitalization of socialist housing estates would have positive effects across all the different types of capital, especially favouring the natural capital of suburban areas (which are strongly affected by negative impacts of commuting), by concentrating the revitalization of man-made capital in the already developed housing estates. To summarize, policy choices for the case study of suburbanization are the following: (r) policy off approach - no public interventions in order to influence the process of suburbanization in the Prague hinterland would be launched; (z) policy on approach - public intervention in direction to influence the process of suburbanization in the Prague hinterland would be carried out Figure j. - Unattractive grey high-rise houses in socialist housing estates (Prague-Chodov) Copyright @ zoo8 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment Author: J. BlaZek. Eur. Env. r8, 96 -ro9 (zoo8) DOI: ro.roo2/eet R"qg:l D'"""|"p-""t Figure 4. "f Prrgr of Urban Sprawl l05 Revitalized socialist housing estates (Prague -Zahradni Mdsto). Author: L. Sfkora. (a) restnctive rne&sures - applied within spatial planning in order to prevent using greenfield sites for new commercial or even residential development (b) stirnulative measures - measures employed to support revitalization of non-used areas (especially brownfield sites) in the inner city (e.g. within spatial planning procedure, legislative and financial incentives) - active public policy towards revitalization of socialist housing estates people not to leave these dwellings. in order to encourage The kinds of public measure described above could positively influence sustainable metropolitan development. In contrast, if no policy actions are launched, the tendency towards unsustainable metropolitan development will be enhanced and the conflict between man-made and natural capital will be reinforced. Critical Trends and Thresholds In respect of critical thresholds and trends in relation to suburbanization, it may first be noted that it has been rather difficult to determine precisely the various critical thresholds in terms of concrete numbers even though quantification of critical trends and thresholds is an integral part of the applied method (ten Brink, zoo6). This is because, first, for most of the critical trends, the respective critical thresholds cannot be defined at all (parficularly for those critical trends that are related to the social capital but also for the otler capitals). Second, if a critical threshold could ever be set, it would undoubtedly differ on various geographical levels. Moreover, a critical threshold might vary even within a certain geographical level, depending on locally specific conditions (e.g. a critical threshold in relation to the provision of Copyright @ zoo8 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment Eur. Env. r8, 96-ro9 (zoo8) DOI: ro.rooz/eet l06 l. Blaiek et al. public transporf from Prague to suburbanized areas or a critical threshold connected to the road system capacity etc.). Therefore, our approach consists of an attempt to identifu the tendencies/trends and determine whether a trend is drifting towards even an albeit inaccurately defined critical threshold. From the methodological point of view, a number of different thresholds can be distinguished: . . thresholds given by legislation (e.g. limits for noise load, limits for emissions and concentrations) thresholds objectively or technically given (e.g. maximum number of cars passing certain road . . thresholds perceivable by society (e.g. rate of unemployment) thresholds purely subjectively perceivable (e.g. level of crime, share of incoming inhabitants segments) in a community). The identified critical trends were dassified according to the capital(s) concerned and according to the hierarchical level on which they are most manifested (see Table 5). A significant number of the recognized critical trends in relation to the urban sprawl in Prague arise from the issue of transport, either individual or public, both on local and regional levels. The most serious situation appears to be in road network capacity. The capacity of'the road network on the regional level is closely linked with a negative impact of suburbanization in terms of commuters who live in the hinterland of Prague. These inhabitants, usually with higher education, find job opporhrnities in Prague, and therefore they heavily use the local and regional road network. Furthermore, even if the level of provision of public transport into the suburbanized area can be assessed as satisfactory, suburban dwellers frequently prefer to use their own cars, which intensifies road use. As the transport flows are concentrated into certain time periods and certain localities, the result is traffic congestion, with considerable smog and dust emissions, as well as noise. lt can be stated that the road network capacity is threatened by a critical trend, which might be already nearly breached, especially at the regional level. For instance, the number of cars in z4 hours at one of the most used roads in Prague, which is part of inner ring road, reaches rzo-r)oooo, while the optimum would be below roo ooo. This is why environmental quality and intensity of usage of road network, or more precisely of new ftansport infrastructure, was one of the key trade-offs identified in Prague in relation to suburbanization. There has been a long-running discussion about the development of transport infrastructure in Prague (see also Pucher, 1999).Among principal factors limiting the development of road network capacity are the financial costs and the rather complicated ownership situation of the required land. Moreover, the possible construction of transport infraitmcture is nearly always opposed either by the public sector (e.g. municipalities potentially affected by a new transport infrastrucfure) or by non-governmental organizations (e.g. particularly environmental or various civic organizations). In addition, some experts argue that new infrastructure will even enhance the intensity of car usage. This argument is further related to the already reduced car absorption capacity of the Prague agglomeration, because the problem with individual car travel is also inevitably linked to the issue of parking space, particularly in the centre of Prague. New, not only residential, construction in suburbanized areas involves occupation of land, which induces change in land use, change in the compact character of the city and transformation of outer urban areas. These tendencies are hard to evaluate by precise numbers. However, from the expert point of view, it can be claimed that all of them are threatened by critical rrends, mainly on the local and regional levels. It is currently preferred to build new housing outside the city of Prague on green fields, or at the edge of the city where suitable plots are available. On the other hand, brownfield sites in the inner parts of Prague are not revitalized at a sufficient pace. This situation could be seen as one of the trade-offb and policy choices related to suburbanization (see the previous section); urban sprawl on one side, and Copyright @ zoo8 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment Eur. Env. 18, 96-ro9 (zoo8) DOI: ro.roo2/eet @t of Prague and lssue of Urban Sprawl Type of capital concerned Critical trends Local Regronal National Man-made public transportation from Prague to suburbanized areas public transportation within suburbanized areas (tangential links) pressure on parking in the centre provision of technical infrasrrucrure maintenance of technical infrastructure increasing land prices road system capacity revitalization of brownfields in the inner city noise load dust and smog emission load traffic congestion individual car use change in the compact character of the city 0/@ ri.J 0 Man-made Man-made Man-made Man-made Man-made Man-made Man-made Natural Natural Man-made, Man-made, Man-made, Man-made, natural natural natural natural Social 50cra I Socia I 50cta I transformation of outer urDan areas social relations between original residents and new incoming residents social polarization loss of social cohesion and weakening of civil 107 rl.D o O \, e o rij 17 O @i@ @ @ o/@ O e/@ @/@ \:-, @/@ Man-made, Man-made, Man-made, Man-made, social social social social Man-made, social, numan Natural, human Table levels 5 t) \J €i@ s @/@ @ @ L;) @ ld, o T:A U e, L' s @ t-, @/@ @ @ {e) @ s/@ @ @ (J @ n \J society strengthening of individualization change in character of retail services provision spatial segregation of certai n functions out-migration from the inner city out-migration of inhabitants with higher social status from socialist housing estates provision of educational, sport and leisure-time facilities in suburbanizeo areas change in land use f, .l s @ o o €/e @/@ s F:]IJ v \J \J @ g ,f,\ \J The key regional (critical) trends identified in connection with suburbanization in Prague on different geographical Traffic lights method. abandoned, derelict land and buildings in the compact city (brownfields), possibly encumbered by ecological burdens, on the other side. Another severe critical trend that has manifested itself on a local level (see Table 5) concerns the provision of suitable educational, sport and leisure-time facilities for new residents, mainly young families. In addition, the change in character of the retail sector in the outer urban areas further encourages inhabitants to use large shopping malls, the expansion of which has almost brought about the downfall of traditional small retail premises in villages and small towns. Several major problems are connected to the process of suburbanization and involve questions of social relationships among different groups of inhabitants and also within certain types of locality. First, there is a critical trend of social polarization/relations among established residents and new residents in suburbanized areas. Second, the social situation might be worsened in socialist housing estate areas when inhabitants with higher social stafus move out. Even if the two problems mentioned have not represented a serious problem in the Prague agglorneration so far, they might cause adyerse impacts Copyright @ zoo8 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment Eur. Env. t8, 96-ro9 (zoo8) DOI: to.tooz/eet t08 l. Blaiek et al. on social relations and the intensity of social pathologies in the future, especially on the local level. Currently, the intensity of social relations between incumbents and new residents is very low. Nevertheless, the two critical trends described above should be counted as among the key issues that prague is facing in connection with its suburbanization process (cf. Table 5). Review of the Nature of Policy Choice In the Czech Republic, municipalities have the principal power in territorial development issues. Parricularly with the help of physical planning, municipalities can control the locations and types of new construction, functional land use and spatial relations among different functions (Sykora, zoo6). A physical plan is regarded particularly as a tool for an increase of man-made capital stock, but also for the enhancement of social capital. However, the procedure of elaboration and prrt ti. hearing in respect of physical plans is highly technical. Neither predefined analysis of short-term and long-term impacts nor cost-benefit analysis are explicitly required in preparation of a physical plan. Even if a physical plan is not explicitly focused on socio-economic development, it is obvious that a physical plan has to (or should) mirror strategic objectives set in a developmental strategy. Due to the fact that suburbanization in the Prague hinterland represents a complex phenomenon related to many spheres and that it is not tackled by any particular programming document or coherent urban policy, the evaluation of the decision-making process would have to be conducted across a wide range of public policies, in parficular sectoral ones (e.g. housing policy including issues such as public support to mortgages and to housing saving, construction of new municipal rented housing, instruments of spatial planning etc.). In fact, the entire decision-making process takes place in a contradictory political context with almost no real effort in practice to implement principles of sustainable development. Conclusion The experience gained during elaboration of this study can be summarized in the following points. (r) The four-capital method combined with concepts of critical trends and critical thresholds can be applied both during drafting of strategic programming documents and during their ex ante evaluation. In our case, we evaluated four key programming documents drafted for the city of Prague (two of them were related to Stmctural Funds, the third was the Strategic Plan of Prague and the remaining one was Prague's Innovation Strategy). Our analysis checked both internal and mutual consistency of all these programming documents and find excessive stress on building of man-made capital. (z) Moreover, this method can be applied not only to different kinds of programming document but also to the problems. In this case study, the four-capital method and critical trends and thresholds have been applied to urban sprawl in the Prague hinterland, which is an issue that is not explicitly addressed by any of the analysed programming documents. In the case of analysis of urban sprawl, the method of evaluating trade-offs and critical regional trends within the four-capital model context has proved especially useful and beneficial, helping to clarify the process of suburbanization to policy-makers. In-depth interviews with several key stakeholders revealed that, in conjunction with concepts of critical trends and critical thresholds, the four-capital model can restructure the debate over the issue in question and provide new stimuli for solutions. Moreover, it can give urgency to issues that might not have been regarded as problemalic. Copyright @ zoo8 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment Eur" Env. r8,96-ro9 (zoo8) DOI: ro.rooz/eet Regional Development of Prague and lssue of Urban Sprawl r09 (3) T'his case study has shown that it is not essential to put an excessive accent on specification o1-quantitative indicators to identify thresholds of the critical trends. With respect to the probiem of data availability, especially on lower geographical levels, and the difi'erent nature of critical thresholds (see the typology in the previous section), it might be also productive to consult the opinions of local experts, who may evaluate critical tendencies qualitatively. The most valuable and relatively straightfbrward applicatiorr of critical thresholds concerns - in line with expectations - nahrral capital. (4) Finaliy, and perhaps most importantly, our analyses have shown that the four-capital nrodel combined with concepts of critical trends and thresholds can be especially usefully applied on local and regional levels where trade-offs between different sorts of capital, as well as critical trends and thresholds, are relatively easily comprehensible by both experts and key actors. Acknowledgements 'fhis paper was carried out with the financial support of DG Research for the SRDTOOI-S project as well as of Research Programme MSM oozr6zoS3r sponsored by the Czech Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport. Financial support from both these grants is greatly appreciated by the authors. References BlaZek j. zoo5. Trends to regional disparities in the Czech Republic in pre-accession period in the European context. Geographia P olonica 78 (z) : 9t-to 6. BlaZek J, YozAbl. zoo4. The institulional and programming context of regional development in the Czech Republic: a critique. In Czech Geography at the Dawn of the Millenniura, Drbohlav D, Kalvoda J , VoZenilek V (eds). Palacky University in Olomouc: Olomouc; 255-267. Dahlstrom K, Ekins P. zoo5. Nature of the 4 Capitals Model, Biefing Paper r for the Inception Meeting. Environment Group, Policy Studies Institute (PSI): Brussels. Laredo P. zoo5. 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